Biblical terminology for race: Difference between revisions

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{{short description|Terms for races in the Bible}}
[[File:First depiction of historical ethnology by Semitic, Hamitic and Japhetic, 1771, Gatterer.jpg|thumb|The first depiction of historical [[ethnology]] of the world separated into the biblical [[sons of Noah]]: [[Semites]], [[Hamites]] and [[Japhetites]], 1771, [[Johann Christoph Gatterer|Gatterer]]'s ''Einleitung in die Synchronistische Universalhistorie''. Gatterer explains that modern history has shown the truth of the biblical prediction of Japhetite supremacy ({{bibleverse|Genesis|9:25-27|HE}}).<ref name=Gatterer>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bf1aAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA170-IA73 Einleitung in die synchronistische universalhistorie], Gatterer, 1771. Described as the first ethnic use of the term Semitic by:
(1) [https://www.academia.edu/11807673/A_note_on_the_history_of_Semitic A note on the history of 'Semitic'], 2003, by Martin Baasten; and (2) [https://www.academia.edu/358938/Taal-_land-_en_volkenkunde_in_de_achttiende_eeuw._Lezing_gehouden_voor_het_Oosters_Genootschap_in_Nederland_te_Leiden_op_19_april_1994._Leiden_Oosters_Genootschap_in_Nederland_No._23_1996._50_pp Taal-, land- en volkenkunde in de achttiende eeuw], 1994, by Han Vermeulen (in Dutch).</ref> Click the image for a transcription of the text.]]
{{Race}}
Since [[early modern]] times, a number of biblical [[ethnonym]]s from the [[Table of Nations]] in [[Genesis 10]] have been used as a basis for [[race (classification of humans)|classifying human racial (cosmetic phenotypes)]] and national (ethnolinguistic cultural) identities. The connection between Genesis 10 and contemporary ethnic groups began during [[classical antiquity]], when authors such as [[Josephus]], [[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]] and [[Jerome]] analyzed the biblical list.
Since [[early modern]] times, a number of biblical [[ethnonym]]s from the [[Table of Nations]] in [[Genesis 10]] have been used as a basis for [[race (classification of humans)|classifying human racial (cosmetic phenotypes)]] and national (ethnolinguistic cultural) identities. The connection between Genesis 10 and contemporary ethnic groups began during [[classical antiquity]], when authors such as [[Josephus]], [[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]] and [[Jerome]] analyzed the biblical list.


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==Classical analyses of Genesis 10==
==Classical analyses of Genesis 10==
[[File:T and O map Guntherus Ziner 1472.jpg|thumb|This [[T and O map]], from the first printed version of [[Isidore of Seville|Isidoor]]'s ''[[Etymologiae]]'', identifies the three known continents as populated by descendants of Sem ([[Shem]]), Iafeth ([[Japheth]]) and Cham ([[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]]).]]
[[File:T and O map Guntherus Ziner 1472.jpg|thumb]]
The following sources attempted to equate the biblical Table of Nations with contemporary identities:
The following sources attempted to equate the biblical Table of Nations with contemporary identities:


===Flavius Josephus===
===Flavius Josephus===
[[File:Josephustable 3.svg|thumb|500px|right|Geographic identifications of Flavius Josephus, {{Circa|100 AD}}]]
[[File:Josephustable 3.svg|thumb|500px|right]]
The 1st-century Jewish-Roman historian [[Josephus]], in ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' Book 1, chapter 6, was the first known author who assigned known ethnicities to some of the names listed in Genesis chapter 10. His assignments became the basis for most later authors, and were as follows:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/ant-1.htm|title=Antiquities of the Jews &ndash; Book I}}</ref>
The 1st-century Jewish-Roman historian [[Josephus]], in ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' Book 1, chapter 6, was the first known author who assigned known ethnicities to some of the names listed in Genesis chapter 10. His assignments became the basis for most later authors, and were as follows:


*Gomer: "those whom the Greeks now call [[Galatia]]ns, [Galls,] but were then called Gomerites".
*Gomer: "those whom the Greeks now call [[Galatia]]ns, [Galls,] but were then called Gomerites".
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===Hippolytus===
===Hippolytus===
[[File:Schedel weltkarte.jpg|thumbnail|right|Woodcut from the [[Nuremberg Chronicle]], showing Shem, Ham and Japheth over their corners of the world]]
[[File:Schedel weltkarte.jpg|thumbnail|right|Woodcut from the [[Nuremberg Chronicle]], showing Shem, Ham and Japheth over their corners of the world]]
[[Hippolytus of Rome]], in his ''Diamerismos'' ({{Circa|234}}, existing in numerous Latin and Greek copies),<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0FucWLGmS8C|title=Die Chronik des Hippolytos im Matritensis graecus 121|first=Adolf|last=Bauer|date=27 February 2018|publisher=J.C. Hinrichs|isbn=9780790541846|via=Google Books}}</ref> made another attempt to assign ethnicities to the names in Genesis 10. It is thought to have been based on the [[Book of Jubilees]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UeUWRckMDkQC&pg=PA118|title=The Mission of the Early Church to Jews and Gentiles|first1=Jostein|last1=Ådna|first2=Hans|last2=Kvalbein|date=27 February 2018|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|isbn=9783161472428|via=Google Books}}</ref>
[[Hippolytus of Rome]], in his ''Diamerismos'' ({{Circa|234}}, existing in numerous Latin and Greek copies), made another attempt to assign ethnicities to the names in Genesis 10. It is thought to have been based on the [[Book of Jubilees]].


Its differences versus that of Josephus are shown below:
Its differences versus that of Josephus are shown below:
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Isidore's identifications for Japheth's sons were repeated in the ''[[Historia Brittonum]]'' attributed to [[Nennius]]. Isidore's identifications also became the basis for numerous later mediaeval scholars, remaining so until the [[Age of Discovery]] prompted newer theories, such as that of [[Benito Arias Montano]] (1571), who proposed connecting Meshech with [[Moscow]], and Ophir with [[Peru]].
Isidore's identifications for Japheth's sons were repeated in the ''[[Historia Brittonum]]'' attributed to [[Nennius]]. Isidore's identifications also became the basis for numerous later mediaeval scholars, remaining so until the [[Age of Discovery]] prompted newer theories, such as that of [[Benito Arias Montano]] (1571), who proposed connecting Meshech with [[Moscow]], and Ophir with [[Peru]].


===Samuel Bochart===
{{main|Geographia Sacra seu Phaleg et Canaan}}
Published in 1646, [[Samuel Bochart]]'s ''[[Geographia Sacra seu Phaleg et Canaan]]'' was the first detailed analysis of the [[Generations of Noah]] since classical times, becoming – and remaining – the [[wikt:locus classicus|locus classicus]] for such scholarship.<ref>{{cite book | last=Stroumsa | first=G. | title=A New Science: The Discovery of Religion in the Age of Reason | publisher=Harvard University Press | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-674-04860-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I6K7RE8WxiEC&pg=PA84 | access-date=2022-10-07|page=84|quote=In any case, Bochart's Geographia sacra would remain the locus classicus for this kind of biblical scholarship, and his seminal analysis would long retain a place of honor in scholarly literature.}}</ref>


==Early modern use of racial terminology==
===Göttingen school of history===
Scholars at the [[Göttingen School of History]], which played an important role in creating a "scientific" basis for historical research,<ref name="Cheng2008">{{cite book|last=Cheng|first=Eileen K.|title=The Plain and Noble Garb of Truth: Nationalism & Impartiality in American Historical Writing, 1784-1860|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-dg5Zh8n4wC&pg=PA362|year=2008|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=978-0-8203-3073-0|pages=362–|quote=...historians of the Gottingen school also played an important role in establishing the basis for critical scholarship and a more "scientific" approach to history during the second half of the eighteenth century as they used their training in philology and statistics and in what were considered the "auxiliary sciences" of paleography and numismatics to analyze historical data.}}</ref> coined the modern racial definitions of the terms [[Semitic people|Semitic]], [[Hamitic]] and [[Japhetic]]. The primary scholars were [[Johann Christoph Gatterer]], [[August Ludwig von Schlözer]] and [[Johann Gottfried Eichhorn]].
Gatterer's 1771 ''Einleitung in die Synchronistische Universalhistorie'' ("Introduction to the Universal Synchronistic History") was the first publication to use these terms in an ethnic sense.<ref name=Gatterer/> Gatterer's description was as follows:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width: 50%;" | Original German{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
! scope="col" style="width: 50%;" | English translation{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
Allgemeine Gränzlinien der Mosaischen Bevölkerungskunde.
Die Familien und Stämme, aus denen hernach kleine und grösere Nationen erwachsen sind, haben sich nach gewissen Directionslinien ausgebreitet. Der Mittel punct der Ausbreitung ist in der Gegend des Gebirges Ararat oder Paropamisus, das ist, im Nordwesten von Indien oder um Bactra herum.
Hiebey ist nicht zu vergessen, was Gen. IX, 25-27 steht, daß nämlich den Japhetiten, wie schon ihr Name anzeigt, vom Noach eine vorzüglich grose Ausbreitung als ein eigener Siegen verheisen worden, daß sie auch in Semitischen Ländern Size bekommen, und daß die Canaaniter ihnen, wie den Semiten, dienen sollten. Wie wörtlich dieses erfüllet worden sey, lehrt die alte und neue Geschichte ganz augenscheinlich.
I) Die Japhetiten wohnten zu Mosis Zeiten von Bactria und Sogdiana an rings um das Caspische Meer herum, im Süden bis an die Küsten von Kleinasien, im Norden von dem Uraltag oder den Riphäisschen Gebirgen an bis in Europen hinüber, woselbst die westliche Gränzlinie vom Tyras oder Dnjester an längst den Küsten des schwarzen Meers über Thracien hinweg, bis an die abendländische Küste Griechenlandes, mit Einschliesung der südöstlichen Küste Italiens, fortlief. Die sogenannten Indo-Scythen haben allem Ansehen nach damals schon an dem Ober-Indus hin gewohnt; aber den Persern getraue ich mir zu Mosis-Zeiten noch niche die südlichen Wohnungen, die sie in der Folge inne hatten, einzuräumen.
II) Die Semiten wohnten zu Mosis Zeiten theils in Indien, gegen den Ganges hin, theils an den Küsten des Südmeers bis an den Persischen Meerbusen, in Elymais, Assyrien, Chaldäa, und im südlischen Mesopotamien, und bey weiterer Ausbreitung in einigen Gegenden von Palästina, im Norden und Süden von Arabien, endlich auch, aber vielleicht noch nicht zu Mosis Zeiten, in Abyssinien oder Ethiopien.
III) Die Chamiten wohnten zu Mosis Zeiten in Schinear, das ist in Mesopotamien und Babylonien, sodann im südwestlichen Arabien (aber ungewiß, ob damals schon, wie hernach, in Ethiopien): von da aber durch ganz Egypten, die nächsten Westfänder Lybiens vielleicht mir eingeschlossen, über einen nördlichen Strich von Arabien, und längst der Küste von Palästina und Syrien, Cypern mit eingeschlossen, bis nach Colchis. Mit der Zeit, und zum Theil schon vor Mose wurden die Chamiten, vornämlich durch Semitische Stämme, denen sie in Arabien, Abyssinien und zulezt auch in Canaan weichen musten, sehr eingeschränkt, und hier und da zum Abzug aus Asien, wo ihnen keine Länder zustunden, gezwungen, oder ausgerottet.
|
General Outline of Mosaic Population Studies.
The families and tribes, from which small and larger nations subsequently grew, have spread in various directions. The middle point of the spread is in the area of the mountains of [[Mountains of Ararat|Ararat]] or [[Paropamisadae|Paropamisus]], that is, in the northwest of India or around [[Bactria|Bactra]].
It is not to be forgotten what {{Bibleverse|Genesis|9:25-27|KJV}} states: that the Japhetites, as their name indicates, were successfully spread by Noah as a result of their victories, that they also have size in Semitic countries, and that the Canaanites, like the Semites, should be subservient. The ancient and modern stories clearly show how this has been literally fulfilled.
I) In Moses's time, the Japhetites lived from Bactria and Sogdiana around the Caspian Sea, in the south to the coasts of Asia Minor, in the North from across the Urals or the Riphaise Mountains to in Europen, even the western line from the [[Dniester|Tyras or Dniester]] on the coasts of the Black Sea long ago across [[Thrace]], to the western coast of Greece, including the southeastern coast of Italy. The so-called [[Indo-Scythians]], according to reputation, already lived on the Upper Indus back then; but would not dare to propose the Persians in Moses's days the southern regions that they subsequently had.
II) During the time of Moses, the Semites lived partly in India, towards the Ganges, partly on the coasts of the South Sea to the Persian Gulf, in Elymais, Assyria, Chaldea, and in southern Mesopotamia, and with further expansion in some areas of Palestine, in the north and south of Arabia, finally too, but maybe not yet in Moses's time, in Abyssinia or Ethiopia.
III) During the time of Moses, the Hamites lived in Schinear, that is in Mesopotamia and Babylonia, then in southwestern Arabia (but uncertain, whether back then, as later, in Ethiopia): from there, however, through all of Egypt, perhaps the closest west of Libya to me, across a northern line from Arabia, and long since the coast from Palestine and Syria, including Cyprus, to Colchis. Over time, and in part even before Moses, the Hamites became very restricted, primarily through Semitic tribes, whom they had to give way in Arabia, Abyssinia and, more recently, also in Canaan, and here and there to withdraw from Asia, where no countries were entitled to them, forced, or exterminated.
|}
==Other interpretations==
===Descendants of Japheth===
[[File:Noachide map from the Abbey library of Saint Gall (oldest map naming Europe), Isidore-Codex 236.png|thumb|The oldest known map of Europe. The caption reads "Ecce sic diviserunt terram filii Noe post diluvium" (Lo thus did the sons of Noah divide the world after the Flood).]]
{{Main|Japhetites}}
The Greek [[Septuagint]] (LXX) text of Genesis includes an additional son of Japheth, "Elisa", between Javan and Tubal; however, as this name is found in no other ancient source, nor in I Chronicles, he is almost universally agreed to be a duplicate of Elisha, son of Javan. The presence of Elisa and of Cainan son of Arpachshad (below) in the Greek Bible accounts for the traditional enumeration among early Christian sources of 72 names, as opposed to the 70 names found in Jewish sources and Western Christian sources.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}
* [[Gomer]]: the [[Cimmerians]], a people from the northern Black Sea, made incursions into Anatolia in the eighth and early seventh centuries BCE before being confined to Cappadocia.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=147}}
**[[Ashkenaz]]: A people of the Black and Caspian sea areas, much later associated with German and East European Jews.{{sfn|Towner|2001|p=103}} The Ashkuza, who lived on the upper [[Euphrates]] in [[Armenia]] expelled the Cimmerians from their territory, and in Jeremiah 51:27 were said to march against Babylon along with two other northern kingdoms.{{sfn|Bøe|2001|p=48}}
** [[Riphath]] (''Diphath'' in Chronicles): Josephus identification Riphath with the [[Paphlagonia]]ns of later antiquity, but this appears to have been no more than a guess; the [[Book of Jubilees]] identifies the name with the "[[Riphean Mountains]]", equated with the Causcasus in Classical sources, and the general understanding seems to have been invaders from the Causcuses who were settled in Armenia or Cappadocia.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=149}}
** [[Togarmah]]: Associated with Anatolia in Ezekiel.{{sfn|Towner|2001|p=103}} Later Armenian historians claimed Togarmah as an ancestor.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=149}}
* [[Magog (Bible)|Magog]]: Associated in Ezekiel with Gog, a king of [[Lydia]], and thereby with Anatolia.{{sfn|Towner|2001|p=103}} The first century CE Jewish historian [[Josephus]] stated that Magog was identical with the [[Scythians]], but modern scholars are sceptical of this and place Magog simply somewhere in Anatolia.{{sfn|Bøe|2001|p=47–48}}
* [[Madai]]: The [[Medes]], from an area now in northwest Iran.{{sfn|Towner|2001|p=103}}
* [[Javan]]: This name is universally agreed to refer to the [[Ionia]]ns (Greeks) of the western and southern coast of Anatolia.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=150}}
** [[Elishah]]: Possibly Elaioussa, an island off the coast of Cilicia, or an old name for the island of Cyprus.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=150}}
** [[Tarshish]] (''Tarshishah'' in Chronicles): Candidates include ([[Tartessos]]) in Spain and Tharros in Sardinia, both of which appear unlikely, and Tarsus in Cilicia, which appears more likely despite some linguistic difficulties.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=150–152}}
** [[Kittim]]: Originally the inhabitants of Kition in Cyprus, later the entire island; in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] the Kittim appear to be the Romans.{{sfn|Towner|2001|p=103}}
** [[Dodanim]] (''Rodanim'' in Chronicles): Inhabitants of [[Rhodes]].{{sfn|Towner|2001|p=103}}
* [[Tubal]]: Tubal and Meshech always appear as a pair in the Old Testament.{{sfn|Bøe|2001|p=101}} The name Tubal is connected with [[Tabal]] and Greek Tipaprivoi, a people of [[Cappadocia]], in the north-east of Anatolia.{{sfn|Bøe|2001|p=102}}
* [[Meshech]]: [[Mushki]]/Muski had its capital at [[Gordium]] and fused with the kingdom of [[Phrygia]] by the 8th century.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=148}}
* [[Tiras]]: Josephus and late Rabbinical writers associated Tiras with [[Thrace]], the part of Europe opposite Anatolia, but all the other sons of Japheth are located in Anatolia itself and it is possible that Tiras may refer to Thracians inhabiting westernmost Anatolia; it has also been associated with some of the [[Sea Peoples]] such as Tursha and [[Tyrrhenians]], but this is considered unlikely.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=149–150}}
===Descendants of Ham===
{{Main|Hamites}}
* [[Biblical Cush|Cush]]: The biblical transliteration of the Egyptian name for [[Nubia]] or Ethiopia; the "sons of Cush" which follow are various locations on the Arabian and possibly African coasts bordering the Red Sea.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=161}}
** [[List of minor Hebrew Bible figures, L–Z#Seba|Seba]]. Has been connected with both [[Yemen]] and [[Ethiopia]], with much confusion with Sheba below.
** [[Havilah]], son of Cush
** [[List of minor Hebrew Bible figures, L–Z#Sabtah|Sabtah]]
** [[Raamah]]
*** Sheba. Has been connected with [[Sabaeans]] and peoples on either side of the narrowest part of the [[Red Sea]].{{citation needed|date=July 2014}}
*** [[Dedan (Bible)|Dedan]], son of Raamah
** [[Sabtechah]], son of Cush
** [[Nimrod]]: in verses 10–12 he is the founder of a list of [[Mesopotamia]]n cities, and the biblical tradition elsewhere identifies him with northern Mesopotamia or Assyria.{{sfn|Towner|2001|p=104}} His location (Mesopotamia) is something of an anomaly, in that the other sons of Cush are connected with Africa or the Red Sea, and he is possibly a late insertion resulting from a confusion between the African Cush and a quite different Cush, the [[eponym]] (ancestor) of the [[Kassites]].{{sfn|Uehlinger|1999|p=628}}
* [[Mizraim]]: Egypt.{{sfn|Matthews|1996|p=452}}
** [[Ludim]], offspring of Mizraim.
** [[Anamim]], offspring of Mizraim.
** [[Lehabim]], offspring of Mizraim.
** [[Naphtuhim]], offspring of Mizraim.
** [[Pathrusim]], offspring of Mizraim.
** [[Casluhim]] ("out of whom came [[Philistines|Philistim]]" – {{bibleref|Genesis|10:14|9}}, {{bibleref|1Chronicles|1:12|9}})
** [[Caphtorim]]: Probably the island of [[Crete]]. According to Deuteronomy 2:23, Caphtorim settled in [[Gaza City|Gaza]], an important Philistinian city.{{sfn|Towner|2001|p=104}}
* [[Phut]]: the Septuagint translates this as [[Ancient Libya|Libyans]], which would be in accordance with the north–to–south progression in the listing of Ham's descendants, but some scholars have suggested [[Land of Punt|Punt]], the Egyptian name for Somalia.{{sfn|Matthews|1996|p=445}}
* [[Canaan (son of Ham)|Canaan]]: The strip of land west of the [[Jordan River]] including modern [[Lebanon]] and parts of [[Syria]], and the varied peoples who lived there.{{sfn|Matthews|1996|p=445–446}}
** [[Sidon]]: The main Phoenician city, often treated as synonymous with [[Phoenicia]].{{sfn|Towner|2001|p=104–105}}
** [[Biblical Hittites|Heth]]: Probably the ancestor of the [[biblical Hittites]], although the [[Hittites]] of Anatolia had no ethnic or linguistic ties with the peoples of Canaan.{{sfn|Towner|2001|p=105}}
** "the [[Jebusite]]", offspring of Canaan.
** "the [[Amorite]]": Generic name for West Semitic peoples of the Fertile Crescent.{{sfn|Towner|2001|p=105}}
** "the [[Girgasites]]", offspring of Canaan
** "the [[Hivite]]", offspring of Canaan
** "the [[Arkite]]", offspring of Canaan.
** "the [[Sinite]]", offspring of Canaan.
** "the [[Arvadite]]", offspring of Canaan.
** "the [[Zemarite]]", offspring of Canaan.
** "the [[Hamathite]]", offspring of Canaan.
Beginning in the 9th century with the Jewish grammarian Judah ibn Quraysh, a relationship between the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] and [[Cushitic languages]] was seen; modern linguists group these two families, along with the [[Egyptian languages|Egyptian]], [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Chadic languages|Chadic]], and [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] language groups into the larger [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] language family. In addition, languages in the southern half of Africa are now seen as belonging to several distinct families independent of the Afro-Asiatic group. Some now discarded [[Hamitic]] theories have become viewed as racist; in particular a theory proposed in the 19th century by Speke, that the [[Tutsi]] were supposedly of some Hamitic ancestry and thus ''inherently superior''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Changing Conceptions of Psychological Life|year=2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0805843361|page=[https://archive.org/details/changingconcepti00jean/page/186 186]|author=David Moshman|editor=Cynthia Lightfoot, Michael Chandler and Chris Lalonde|chapter=Theories of Self and Theories as Selves|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/changingconcepti00jean}}</ref>
The 17th-century Jesuit, [[Athanasius Kircher]], thought that the Chinese had also descended from Ham, via Egyptians.
===Descendants of Shem===
{{Main|Semitic people}}
* [[Elam (Hebrew Bible)|Elam]]: A kingdom east of [[Assyria]] and [[Babylonia]] and along the Persian Gulf.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=141}} The [[Elamites]] called their land ''Haltamti'' and had an empire (capital [[Susa]]) in what is now [[Khuzistan]], modern [[Iran]]. [[Elamite language|Elamite]] is not a [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] language, but a [[Language Isolate]].
* [[Ashur (Bible)|Ashur]]: [[Assyria]], which was not [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] like the Hebrews, but an [[East Semitic]] speaking kingdom in [[Upper Mesopotamia]]. In the much older Assyrian tradition itself, ''Ashur'' is the name of the chief deity in [[Mesopotamian religion]] and the name of the city state of [[Assur]].{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=141}}
* [[Arpachshad]]: [[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] links Arpachshad with [[Chaldaea]] in his [[Antiquities of the Jews]], stating: "Arphaxad named the Arphaxadites, who are now called Chaldeans."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=1:section=143&highlight=chaldeans|title=Antiquities of the Jews|last=Josephus|first=Flavius|pages=Book 1, section 143}}</ref>
:* ''[[Cainan]] is listed as the son of Arpachshad and father of Shelah in the [[Septuagint]], a Greek translation of the Hebrew bible (the [[Masoretic text]]) made in the last few centuries before the modern era. The name is omitted in the Hebrew bible. The [[genealogy of Jesus]] in [[St. Luke]] 3:36, which is taken from the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew text, include the name.''
:* [[Salah (biblical figure)|Salah]] (also transcribed ''Shelah'') son of Arpachshad (or Cainan).
::* [[Eber]] son of Shelah: The ancestor of Abraham and the Hebrews, he has a significant place as the 14th from Adam.{{sfn|Matthews|1996|p=497}}
:::* [[Peleg]]: The name means "division," and may refer to the division of the peoples in the [[Tower of Babel]] incident which follows, or to Peleg and his descendants being "divided out" as the chosen people of God.{{sfn|Matthews|1996|p=38}}
:::* [[Joktan]]: The name is [[Arabic]], and his 13 "sons," so far as they can be identified, correspond to the west and southwest of the Arabian peninsula.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
::::* [[Almodad]], son of Joktan.
::::* [[Sheleph]], son of Joktan.
::::* [[Hazarmaveth]], son of Joktan.
::::* [[Jerah]], son of Joktan.
::::* [[Hadoram]], son of Joktan.
::::* [[Uzal]], son of Joktan.
::::* [[Diklah]] son of Joktan.
::::* [[Obal]], son of Joktan.
::::* [[Abimael]], son of Joktan.
::::* [[Sheba]], son of Joktan.
::::* [[Ophir]], son of Joktan.
::::* [[Havilah]], son of Joktan.
::::* [[Jobab]], son of Joktan.
* [[Lud son of Shem|Lud]]: The kingdom of [[Lydia]] in eastern Anatolia.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=141}} However, Lydia was [[Indo-Anatolian]] speaking and not West Semitic and not geographically near the other "sons of Shem", which makes its presence in the list difficult to explain.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=142}}
* [[Aram, son of Shem|Aram]]: [[Aramaeans]]: Mesopotamia and Syria.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=141}}
** [[Uz (son of Aram)|Uz]], son of Aram.
** [[Hul]], son of Aram.
** [[Gether]], son of Aram.
** [[Mash (biblical figure)|Mash]], son of Aram ([[1 Chronicles]] has ''Meshech'').
== See also ==
* [[Color terminology for race]]
* [[Genealogies in the Bible]]
* [[Generations of Noah]]
* [[Genetic history of the Middle East]]
* [[Race and appearance of Jesus]]
==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|chapter=Retelling the Old Testament|author=Philip Alexander|title=It is Written: Scripture Citing Scripture: Essays in Honour of Barnabas Lindars, SSF|publisher=CUP Archive|date=1988|isbn=9780521323475|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yO48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA102}}
* {{Cite book
|last                  = Bøe
|first                = Sverre
|title                = Gog and Magog: Ezekiel 38–39 as pre-text for Revelation 19, 17–21 and 20, 7–10
|publisher            = Mohr Siebeck
|year                  = 2001
|url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=vettpBoVOX4C&q=%22the+longest+and+the+most+influential+oracles+concerning+the+Gog-traditions+up+to+the+time+of+Revelation%22&pg=PA76
|isbn                = 9783161475207
}}
* {{Cite book
|last                  = Gmirkin
|first                = Russell
|title                = Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus: Hellenistic Histories and the Date of the Pentateuch
|publisher            = Bloomsbury Publishing USA
|year                  = 2006
|url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=CKuoAwAAQBAJ&q=%22Table+of+Nations+is+a+subject+of+perpetual+debate%22&pg=PA141
|isbn                = 9780567134394
}}
* {{cite book|chapter=A Comparative Commentary on the Earths Division|title=The Dead Sea Genesis Apocryphon: A New Text and Translation With Introduction and Special Treatment of Columns 13–17|author=Daniel A. Machiela|publisher=BRILL|date=2009|isbn=9789004168145|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7O4oKMuLeaQC&pg=PA107}}
* {{Cite book
|last                  = Matthews
|first                = K.A.
|title                = Genesis 1–11:26
|publisher            = B&H Publishing Group
|year                  = 1996
|url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=xLe4AwAAQBAJ&q=%22the+three+geographical+arcs+of+the+branches+intersect+at+the+center%22&pg=PA433
|isbn                = 9781433675515
}}
* {{cite book|title=Primaeval History Interpreted: The Rewriting of Genesis 1–11 in the Book of Jubilees|author=Jacques T. A. G. M. Ruiten|publisher=BRILL|date=2000|isbn=9789004116580|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1xxo82l7TeQC&pg=PA324}}
* {{Cite book
|last                  = Towner
|first                = Wayne Sibley 
|title                = Genesis
|publisher            = Westminster John Knox Press
|year                  = 2001
|url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=6ONdsoa7MHUC&q=Genesis+%22Table+of+Nations%22&pg=PA105
|isbn                  = 9780664252564 
}}
* {{Cite book
|last                  = Uehlinger
|first                = Christof
|chapter              = Nimrod
|editor1-last          = Van der Toorn
|editor1-first        = Karel
|editor2-last          = Becking
|editor2-first        = Bob
|editor3-last          = Van der Horst
|editor3-first        = Pieter
|title                = Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible
|publisher            = Brill
|year                  = 1999
|chapter-url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&q=%22Kush+stands+for+Nubia%22%22eponym+of+the+Kassites%22&pg=PA628
|isbn                = 9780802824912
}}
==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}
{{Historical definitions of race}}


[[Category:Biblical phrases|terminology]]
[[Category:Biblical phrases|terminology]]

Latest revision as of 02:59, 2 March 2024

Since early modern times, a number of biblical ethnonyms from the Table of Nations in Genesis 10 have been used as a basis for classifying human racial (cosmetic phenotypes) and national (ethnolinguistic cultural) identities. The connection between Genesis 10 and contemporary ethnic groups began during classical antiquity, when authors such as Josephus, Hippolytus and Jerome analyzed the biblical list.

The early modern equation of the biblical Semites, Hamites and Japhetites with "racial" phenotypes was coined at the Göttingen School of History in the late 18th century – in parallel with other, more secular terminologies for race, such as Blumenbach's fivefold color scheme.

Classical analyses of Genesis 10

File:T and O map Guntherus Ziner 1472.jpg

The following sources attempted to equate the biblical Table of Nations with contemporary identities:

Flavius Josephus

File:Josephustable 3.svg

The 1st-century Jewish-Roman historian Josephus, in Antiquities of the Jews Book 1, chapter 6, was the first known author who assigned known ethnicities to some of the names listed in Genesis chapter 10. His assignments became the basis for most later authors, and were as follows:

  • Gomer: "those whom the Greeks now call Galatians, [Galls,] but were then called Gomerites".
    • Aschanax (Ashkenaz): "Aschanaxians, who are now called by the Greeks Rheginians".
    • Riphath: "Ripheans, now called Paphlagonians".
    • Thrugramma (Togarmah): "Thrugrammeans, who, as the Greeks resolved, were named Phrygians".
  • Magog: "Magogites, but who are by the Greeks called Scythians".
  • Madai: "the Madeans, who are called Medes, by the Greeks".
  • Javan: "Ionia, and all the Grecians".
    • Elisa: "Eliseans... they are now the Aeolians".
    • Tharsus (Tarshish): "Tharsians, for so was Cilicia of old called". He also derives the name of their city Tarsus from Tharsus.
    • Cethimus (Kittim): "The island Cethima: it is now called Cyprus". He also derives the Greek name of their city, which he spells Citius, from Cethimus.
  • Thobel (Tubal): "Thobelites, who are now called Iberes".
  • Mosoch (Meshech): "Mosocheni... now they are Cappadocians." He also derives the name of their capital Mazaca from Mosoch.
  • Thiras (Tiras): "Thirasians; but the Greeks changed the name into Thracians".
  • Chus (Cush): "Ethiopians... even at this day, both by themselves and by all men in Asia, called Chusites".
    • Sabas (Seba): Sabeans
    • Evilas (Havilah): "Evileans, who are called Getuli".
    • Sabathes (Sabta): "Sabathens, they are now called by the Greeks Astaborans".
    • Sabactas (Sabteca): Sabactens
    • Ragmus (Raamah): Ragmeans
      • Judadas (Dedan): "Judadeans, a nation of the western Ethiopians".
      • Sabas (Sheba): Sabeans
  • Mesraim (Misraim): Egypt, which he says is called Mestre in his country.
    • "Now all the children of Mesraim, being eight in number, possessed the country from Gaza to Egypt, though it retained the name of one only, the Philistim; for the Greeks call part of that country Palestine. As for the rest, Ludieim, and Enemim, and Labim, who alone inhabited in Libya, and called the country from himself, Nedim, and Phethrosim, and Chesloim, and Cephthorim, we know nothing of them besides their names; for the Ethiopic war which we shall describe hereafter, was the cause that those cities were overthrown."
  • Phut: Ancient Libya. He states that a river and region "in the country of Moors" was still called Phut by the Greeks, but that it had been renamed "from one of the sons of Mesraim, who was called Lybyos".
  • Canaan: Judea, which he called "from his own name Canaan".
    • Sidonius (Sidon): The city of Sidonius, "called by the Greeks Sidon".
    • Amathus (Hamathite): "Amathine, which is even now called Amathe by the inhabitants, although the Macedonians named it Epiphania, from one of his posterity."
    • Arudeus (Arvadite): "the island Aradus".
    • Arucas (Arkite): "Arce, which is in Libanus".
    • "But for the seven others [sons of Canaan], Chetteus, Jebuseus, Amorreus, Gergesus, Eudeus, Sineus, Samareus, we have nothing in the sacred books but their names, for the Hebrews overthrew their cities".
  • Elam: "Elamites, the ancestors of the Persians".
  • Ashur: "Assyrians, and their city Niniveh built by Ashur.
  • Arphaxad: "Arphaxadites, who are now called Chaldeans".
    • Sala
      • Heber (Eber): "from whom they originally called the Jews Hebrews".
        • Phaleg (Peleg): He notes that he was so named "because he was born at the dispersion of the nations to their several countries; for Phaleg among the Hebrews signifies division".
        • Joctan
          • "Elmodad, Saleph, Asermoth, Jera, Adoram, Aizel, Decla, Ebal, Abimael, Sabeus, Ophir, Euilat, and Jobab. These inhabited from Cophen, an Indian river, and in part of Asia adjoining to it."
  • Aram: "Aramites, which the Greeks called Syrians".
  • Laud (Lud): "Laudites, which are now called Lydians".

Hippolytus

File:Schedel weltkarte.jpg
Woodcut from the Nuremberg Chronicle, showing Shem, Ham and Japheth over their corners of the world

Hippolytus of Rome, in his Diamerismos (Template:Circa, existing in numerous Latin and Greek copies), made another attempt to assign ethnicities to the names in Genesis 10. It is thought to have been based on the Book of Jubilees.

Its differences versus that of Josephus are shown below:

The Chronography of 354, the Panarion by Epiphanius of Salamis (Template:Circa), the Chronicon Paschale (Template:Circa), the History of Albania by the Georgian historian Movses Kaghankatvatsi (7th century), and the Synopsis of Histories by John Skylitzes (Template:Circa) follow the identifications of Hippolytus.

Jerome

Jerome, writing Template:Circa, provided an 'updated' version of Josephus' identifications in his Hebrew Questions on Genesis. His list is substantially identical to that of Josephus in almost all respects, but with the following notable differences:

Isidore

The scholar Isidore of Seville, in his Etymologiae (Template:Circa), repeats all of Jerome's identifications, but with these minor changes:[1]

  • Joktan, son of Eber: Indians
  • Saleph, son of Joktan: Bactrians
  • Magog, son of Japheth: "Scythians and Goths"
  • Ashkenaz, son of Gomer: "Sarmatians, whom the Greeks call Rheginians".

Isidore's identifications for Japheth's sons were repeated in the Historia Brittonum attributed to Nennius. Isidore's identifications also became the basis for numerous later mediaeval scholars, remaining so until the Age of Discovery prompted newer theories, such as that of Benito Arias Montano (1571), who proposed connecting Meshech with Moscow, and Ophir with Peru.

  1. ↑ Template:Cite book page 192 page 193
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