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| {{Short description|Relationship between race and crime}}
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| {{Too few opinions|date=March 2023}}
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| [[Race (classification of human beings)|Race]] is one of the [[correlates of crime]] receiving attention in academic studies, government surveys, media coverage, and public concern. Research has found that social status, poverty, and childhood exposure to violent behavior are causes of the racial disparities in crime. Research conducted in Europe and the United States on the matter has been widely published, particularly in relation to discrimination by criminal justice systems. | | [[Race (classification of human beings)|Race]] is one of the [[correlates of crime]] receiving attention in academic studies, government surveys, media coverage, and public concern. Research has found that social status, poverty, and childhood exposure to violent behavior are causes of the racial disparities in crime. Research conducted in Europe and the United States on the matter has been widely published, particularly in relation to discrimination by criminal justice systems. |
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| == Discrimination by the criminal justice system in Europe == | | == Discrimination by the criminal justice system in Europe == |
| Research suggests that police practices, such as [[racial profiling]], over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects in [[Sweden]], [[Italy]], and [[England]] and [[Wales]]. According to the [[Racial Disparity Audit]] conducted by the [[United Kingdom]] Prime Minister, in 2017 minorities living in Wales and England were more than 3.5 times more likely to be arrested than whites. Likewise, this same group was far more likely to be the victims of crime with their white counterparts only having 15 percent likelihood.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bulman|first1=May|date=October 11, 2017|title=Ethnic minorities most likely to be both victims and suspects of crime, UK race report finds|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/ethnic-minorities-crime-victims-perpetrators-uk-race-report-a7993521.html|access-date=30 November 2018|work=The Independent|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=Diskriminering i rättsprocessen - Brå|url=https://www.bra.se/bra/publikationer/arkiv/publikationer/2008-02-21-diskriminering-i-rattsprocessen.html|access-date=2016-01-26|website=www.bra.se|language=sv}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Hällsten|first1=Martin|last2=Szulkin|first2=Ryszard|last3=Sarnecki|first3=Jerzy|date=2013-05-01|title=Crime as a Price of Inequality? The Gap in Registered Crime between Childhood Immigrants, Children of Immigrants and Children of Native Swedes|journal=British Journal of Criminology|volume=53|issue=3|pages=456–481|doi=10.1093/bjc/azt005}}</ref><ref name=":27">{{Cite book|last=Crocitti|first=Stefania|title=Immigration, Crime, and Criminalization in Italy - Oxford Handbooks|year=2014|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.029}}</ref><ref name=":29">{{Cite journal|last=Colombo|first=Asher|date=2013-11-01|title=Foreigners and immigrants in Italy's penal and administrative detention systems|journal=European Journal of Criminology|language=en|volume=10|issue=6|pages=746–759|doi=10.1177/1477370813495128|s2cid=145099179}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Parmar|first=Alpa|title=Ethnicities, Racism, and Crime in England and Wales - Oxford Handbooks|year=2014|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.014}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities in Sweden, the [[Netherlands]], Italy, [[Germany]], [[Denmark]] and [[France]].<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":27" /><ref name=":29" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holmberg|first1=Lars|last2=Kyvsgaard|first2=Britta|year=2003|title=Are Immigrants and Their Descendants Discriminated against in the Danish Criminal Justice System?|journal=Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention|volume=4|issue=2|pages=125–142|doi=10.1080/14043850310020027|s2cid=143646955}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roché|first1=Sebastian|title=Case Study - Oxford Handbooks|last2=Gordon|first2=Mirta B.|last3=Depuiset|first3=Marie-Aude|year=2014|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.030}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Light|first=Michael T.|date=2016-03-01|title=The Punishment Consequences of Lacking National Membership in Germany, 1998–2010|journal=Social Forces|language=en|volume=94|issue=3|pages=1385–1408|doi=10.1093/sf/sov084|s2cid=155814847}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Wermink|first1=Hilde|last2=Johnson|first2=Brian D.|last3=Nieuwbeerta|first3=Paul|last4=Keijser|first4=Jan W. de|date=2015-11-01|title=Expanding the scope of sentencing research: Determinants of juvenile and adult punishment in the Netherlands|journal=European Journal of Criminology|language=en|volume=12|issue=6|pages=739–768|doi=10.1177/1477370815597253|s2cid=143366742}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} | | Research suggests that police practices, such as [[racial profiling]], over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects in [[Sweden]], [[Italy]], and [[England]] and [[Wales]]. According to the [[Racial Disparity Audit]] conducted by the [[United Kingdom]] Prime Minister, in 2017 minorities living in Wales and England were more than 3.5 times more likely to be arrested than whites. Likewise, this same group was far more likely to be the victims of crime with their white counterparts only having 15 percent likelihood. Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities in Sweden, the [[Netherlands]], Italy, [[Germany]], [[Denmark]] and [[France]]. |
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| == Discrimination by the criminal justice system in the United States == | | == Discrimination by the criminal justice system in the United States == |
| {{main|Race and crime in the United States|Race in the United States criminal justice system}} | | {{main|Race and crime in the United States|Race in the United States criminal justice system}} |
| Research suggests that police practices, such as [[racial profiling]], over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Warren|first1=Patricia Y.|last2=Tomaskovic-Devey|first2=Donald|date=2009-05-01|title=Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior?|journal=Criminology & Public Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=343–369|doi=10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00556.x}}</ref><ref name="MoJ p. 82">''[https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/217822/stats-race-and-the-criminal-justice-system-2008-09c1.pdf Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2008/09]'', p. 8., 22</ref><ref name=":52">{{Cite journal|last=West|first=Jeremy|date=February 2018|title=Racial Bias in Police Investigations|url=https://people.ucsc.edu/~jwest1/articles/West_RacialBiasPolice.pdf|journal=Working Paper}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Donohue III|first1=John J.|last2=Levitt|first2=Steven D.|date=2001-01-01|title=The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests|journal=The Journal of Law & Economics|volume=44|issue=2|pages=367–394|citeseerx=10.1.1.381.8047|doi=10.1086/322810|jstor=10.1086/322810|s2cid=1547854}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Abrams|first1=David S.|last2=Bertrand|first2=Marianne|last3=Mullainathan|first3=Sendhil|date=2012-06-01|title=Do Judges Vary in Their Treatment of Race?|url=https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/faculty_scholarship/355|journal=The Journal of Legal Studies|volume=41|issue=2|pages=347–383|doi=10.1086/666006|s2cid=2338687}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Mustard|first=David B.|date=2001|title=Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities in Sentencing: Evidence from the U.S. Federal Courts|journal=The Journal of Law and Economics|volume=44|issue=1|pages=285–314|doi=10.1086/320276|s2cid=154533225}}</ref><ref name=":34">{{Cite journal|last1=Anwar|first1=Shamena|last2=Bayer|first2=Patrick|last3=Hjalmarsson|first3=Randi|date=2012-05-01|title=The Impact of Jury Race in Criminal Trials|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|language=en|volume=127|issue=2|pages=1017–1055|doi=10.1093/qje/qjs014|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Daudistel|first1=Howard C.|last2=Hosch|first2=Harmon M.|last3=Holmes|first3=Malcolm D.|last4=Graves|first4=Joseph B.|date=1999-02-01|title=Effects of Defendant Ethnicity on Juries' Dispositions of Felony Cases|journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|language=en|volume=29|issue=2|pages=317–336|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb01389.x}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last1=Depew|first1=Briggs|last2=Eren|first2=Ozkan|last3=Mocan|first3=Naci|year=2017|title=Judges, Juveniles, and In-Group Bias|url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w22003.pdf|journal=[[Journal of Law and Economics]]|volume=60|issue=2|pages=209–239|doi=10.1086/693822|s2cid=147631237}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=David|first1=Arnold|last2=Will|first2=Dobbie|last3=Yang|first3=Crystal S.|date=May 2017|title=Racial Bias in Bail Decisions|journal=NBER Working Paper No. 23421|doi=10.3386/w23421|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":193">{{Cite journal|last1=Rehavi|first1=M. Marit|last2=Starr|first2=Sonja B.|date=2014|title=Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences|url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2413&context=articles|journal=Journal of Political Economy|language=en|volume=122|issue=6|pages=1320–1354|doi=10.1086/677255|issn=0022-3808|s2cid=3348344}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Crystal S.|last2=Cohen|first2=Alma|date=2019|title=Judicial Politics and Sentencing Decisions|journal=American Economic Journal: Economic Policy|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=160–91|doi=10.1257/pol.20170329|issn=1945-7731|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} On average, white offenders are less likely to be arrested for their crime than non-white offenders. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Beck |first=Allen J. |date=September 2021 |title=Race and Ethnicity of Violent Crime Offenders and Arrestees, 2018 |url=https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/revcoa18.pdf |access-date=October 13, 2023}}</ref> | | Research suggests that police practices, such as [[racial profiling]], over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects.Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities. On average, white offenders are less likely to be arrested for their crime than non-white offenders. |
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Crime in the United States]]
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| * [[Immigration and crime]]
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| * [[Incarceration in the United States]]
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| * [[Race and crime in the United States]]
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| * [[Racial inequality in the United States|Race and inequality in the United States]]
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| * [[Racial profiling]]
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| * [[Racism in the United States]]
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| * [[Hate crime]]
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| *[[Decarceration in the United States]]
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| *[[Electronic monitoring in the United States]]
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| * [[Statistical correlations of criminal behaviour]]
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| == References ==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| {{Race and crime}}
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| {{Authority control}}
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| [[Category:Race and crime| ]] | | [[Category:Race and crime| ]] |
Race is one of the correlates of crime receiving attention in academic studies, government surveys, media coverage, and public concern. Research has found that social status, poverty, and childhood exposure to violent behavior are causes of the racial disparities in crime. Research conducted in Europe and the United States on the matter has been widely published, particularly in relation to discrimination by criminal justice systems.
Discrimination by the criminal justice system in Europe
Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects in Sweden, Italy, and England and Wales. According to the Racial Disparity Audit conducted by the United Kingdom Prime Minister, in 2017 minorities living in Wales and England were more than 3.5 times more likely to be arrested than whites. Likewise, this same group was far more likely to be the victims of crime with their white counterparts only having 15 percent likelihood. Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities in Sweden, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Denmark and France.
Discrimination by the criminal justice system in the United States
Template:Main
Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects.Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities. On average, white offenders are less likely to be arrested for their crime than non-white offenders.