Heritability: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 04:37, 1 February 2024

Research on the heritability of IQ inquires into the degree of variation in IQ within a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population. There has been significant controversy in the academic community about the heritability of IQ since research on the issue began in the late nineteenth century.^[1]^[2] Intelligence in the normal range is a polygenic trait, meaning that it is influenced by more than one gene,^[3]^[4] and in the case of intelligence at least 500 genes.^[5] Further, explaining the similarity in IQ of closely related persons requires careful study because environmental factors may be correlated with genetic factors.

Early twin studies of adult individuals have found a heritability of IQ between 57% and 73%,^[6] with some recent studies showing heritability for IQ as high as 80%.^[7] IQ goes from being weakly correlated with genetics for children, to being strongly correlated with genetics for late teens and adults. The heritability of IQ increases with the child's age and reaches a plateau at 14–16^[8] years old, continuing at that level well into adulthood. However, poor prenatal environment, malnutrition and disease are known to have lifelong deleterious effects.^[9]^[10]^[11]

Although IQ differences between individuals have been shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that disparities in IQ between groups have a genetic basis.^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15] The scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain average differences in IQ test performance between racial groups.^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21]

Heritability and caveats

Heritability is a statistic used in the fields of breeding and genetics that estimates the degree of variation in a phenotypic trait in a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population.^[22] The concept of heritability can be expressed in the form of the following question: "What is the proportion of the variation in a given trait within a population that is not explained by the environment or random chance?"^[23]

Estimates of heritability take values ranging from 0 to 1; a heritability estimate of 1 indicates that all variation in the trait in question is genetic in origin and a heritability estimate of 0 indicates that none of the variation is genetic. The determination of many traits can be considered primarily genetic under similar environmental backgrounds. For example, a 2006 study found that adult height has a heritability estimated at 0.80 when looking only at the height variation within families where the environment should be very similar.^[24] Other traits have lower heritability estimates, which indicate a relatively larger environmental influence. For example, a twin study on the heritability of depression in men estimated it as 0.29, while it was 0.42 for women in the same study.^[25]

Caveats

There are a number of points to consider when interpreting heritability:

Heritability measures the proportion of variation in a trait that can be attributed to genes, and not the proportion of a trait caused by genes. Thus, if the environment relevant to a given trait changes in a way that affects all members of the population equally, the mean value of the trait will change without any change in its heritability (because the variation or differences among individuals in the population will stay the same). This has evidently happened for height: the heritability of stature is high, but average heights continue to increase.^[26] Thus, even in developed nations, a high heritability of a trait does not necessarily mean that average group differences are due to genes.^[26]^[27] Some have gone further, and used height as an example in order to argue that "even highly heritable traits can be strongly manipulated by the environment, so heritability has little if anything to do with controllability."^[28]
A common error is to assume that a heritability figure is necessarily unchangeable. The value of heritability can change if the impact of environment (or of genes) in the population is substantially altered.^[26] If the environmental variation encountered by different individuals increases, then the heritability figure would decrease. On the other hand, if everyone had the same environment, then heritability would be 100%. The population in developing nations often has more diverse environments than in developed nations. This would mean that heritability figures would be lower in developing nations. Another example is phenylketonuria which previously caused mental retardation for everyone who had this genetic disorder and thus had a heritability of 100%. Today, this can be prevented by following a modified diet, resulting in a lowered heritability.^[29]
A high heritability of a trait does not mean that environmental effects such as learning are not involved. Vocabulary size, for example, is very substantially heritable (and highly correlated with general intelligence) although every word in an individual's vocabulary is learned. In a society in which plenty of words are available in everyone's environment, especially for individuals who are motivated to seek them out, the number of words that individuals actually learn depends to a considerable extent on their genetic predispositions and thus heritability is high.^[26]
Since heritability increases during childhood and adolescence, and even increases greatly between 16 and 20 years of age and adulthood, one should be cautious drawing conclusions regarding the role of genetics and environment from studies where the participants are not followed until they are adults. Furthermore, there may be differences regarding the effects on the g-factor and on non-g factors, with g possibly being harder to affect and environmental interventions disproportionately affecting non-g factors.^[30]
Polygenic traits often appear less heritable at the extremes. A heritable trait is definitionally more likely to appear in the offspring of two parents high in that trait than in the offspring of two randomly selected parents. However, the more extreme the expression of the trait in the parents, the less likely the child is to display the same extreme as the parents. At the same time, the more extreme the expression of the trait in the parents, the more likely the child is to express the trait at all. For example, the child of two extremely tall parents is likely to be taller than the average person (displaying the trait), but unlikely to be taller than the two parents (displaying the trait at the same extreme). See also regression toward the mean.^[31]^[32]

Estimates

Various studies have estimated the heritability of IQ to be between 0.7 and 0.8 in adults and 0.45 in childhood in the United States.^[26]^[33]^[34] It has been found that estimates of heritability increase as individuals age. Heritability estimates in infancy are as low as 0.2, around 0.4 in middle childhood, and as high as 0.8 in adulthood.^[7] The brain undergoes morphological changes in development which suggests that age-related physical changes could contribute to this effect.^[35]

A 1994 article in Behavior Genetics based on a study of Swedish monozygotic and dizygotic twins found the heritability of the sample to be as high as 0.80 in general cognitive ability; however, it also varies by trait, with 0.60 for verbal tests, 0.50 for spatial and speed-of-processing tests, and 0.40 for memory tests. In contrast, studies of other populations estimate an average heritability of 0.50 for general cognitive ability.^[33]

In 2006, David Kirp, writing in The New York Times Magazine, summarized a century's worth of research as follows, "about three-quarters of I.Q. differences between individuals are attributable to heredity."^[36]

Shared family environment

There are some family effects on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. However, adoption studies show that by adulthood adoptive siblings aren't more similar in IQ than strangers,^[37] while adult full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.24. However, some studies of twins reared apart (e.g. Bouchard, 1990) find a significant shared environmental influence, of at least 10% going into late adulthood.^[34] Judith Rich Harris suggests that this might be due to biasing assumptions in the methodology of the classical twin and adoption studies.^[38]

There are aspects of environments that family members have in common (for example, characteristics of the home). This shared family environment accounts for 0.25-0.35 of the variation in IQ in childhood. By late adolescence it is quite low (zero in some studies). There is a similar effect for several other psychological traits. These studies have not looked into the effects of extreme environments such as in abusive families.^[26]^[37]^[39]^[40]

The American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" (1996) states that there is no doubt that normal child development requires a certain minimum level of responsible care. Severely deprived, neglectful, or abusive environments must have negative effects on a great many aspects of development, including intellectual aspects. Beyond that minimum, however, the role of family experience is in serious dispute. There is no doubt that such variables as resources of the home and parents' use of language are correlated with children's IQ scores, but such correlations may be mediated by genetic as well as (or instead of) environmental factors. But how much of that variance in IQ results from differences between families, as contrasted with the varying experiences of different children in the same family? Recent twin and adoption studies suggest that while the effect of the shared family environment is substantial in early childhood, it becomes quite small by late adolescence. These findings suggest that differences in the life styles of families whatever their importance may be for many aspects of children's lives make little long-term difference for the skills measured by intelligence tests.

Non-shared family environment and environment outside the family

Although parents treat their children differently, such differential treatment explains only a small amount of non-shared environmental influence. One suggestion is that children react differently to the same environment due to different genes. More likely influences may be the impact of peers and other experiences outside the family.^[26]^[39] For example, siblings grown up in the same household may have different friends and teachers and even contract different illnesses. This factor may be one of the reasons why IQ score correlations between siblings decreases as they get older.^[41]

Malnutrition and diseases

Certain single-gene metabolic disorders can severely affect intelligence. Phenylketonuria is an example,^[42] with publications demonstrating the capacity of phenylketonuria to produce a reduction of 10 IQ points on average.^[43] Meta-analyses have found that environmental factors, such as iodine deficiency, can result in large reductions in average IQ; iodine deficiency has been shown to produce a reduction of 12.5 IQ points on average.^[44]

Heritability and socioeconomic status

The APA report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" (1996) also stated that:

"We should note, however, that low-income and non-white families are poorly represented in existing adoption studies as well as in most twin samples. Thus it is not yet clear whether these studies apply to the population as a whole. It remains possible that, across the full range of income and ethnicity, between-family differences have more lasting consequences for psychometric intelligence."^[26]

A study (1999) by Capron and Duyme of French children adopted between the ages of four and six examined the influence of socioeconomic status (SES). The children's IQs initially averaged 77, putting them near retardation. Most were abused or neglected as infants, then shunted from one foster home or institution to the next. Nine years later after adoption, when they were on average 14 years old, they retook the IQ tests, and all of them did better. The amount they improved was directly related to the adopting family's socioeconomic status. "Children adopted by farmers and laborers had average IQ scores of 85.5; those placed with middle-class families had average scores of 92. The average IQ scores of youngsters placed in well-to-do homes climbed more than 20 points, to 98."^[36]^[45]

Stoolmiller (1999) argued that the range of environments in previous adoption studies was restricted. Adopting families tend to be more similar on, for example, socio-economic status than the general population, which suggests a possible underestimation of the role of the shared family environment in previous studies. Corrections for range restriction to adoption studies indicated that socio-economic status could account for as much as 50% of the variance in IQ.^[46]

On the other hand, the effect of this was examined by Matt McGue and colleagues (2007), who wrote that "restriction in range in parent disinhibitory psychopathology and family socio-economic status had no effect on adoptive-sibling correlations [in] IQ"^[47]

Turkheimer and colleagues (2003) argued that the proportions of IQ variance attributable to genes and environment vary with socioeconomic status. They found that in a study on seven-year-old twins, in impoverished families, 60% of the variance in early childhood IQ was accounted for by the shared family environment, and the contribution of genes is close to zero; in affluent families, the result is almost exactly the reverse.^[48]

In contrast to Turkheimer (2003), a study by Nagoshi and Johnson (2005) concluded that the heritability of IQ did not vary as a function of parental socioeconomic status in the 949 families of Caucasian and 400 families of Japanese ancestry who took part in the Hawaii Family Study of Cognition.^[49]

Asbury and colleagues (2005) studied the effect of environmental risk factors on verbal and non-verbal ability in a nationally representative sample of 4-year-old British twins. There was not any statistically significant interaction for non-verbal ability, but the heritability of verbal ability was found to be higher in low-SES and high-risk environments.^[50]

Harden, Turkheimer, and Loehlin (2007) investigated adolescents, most 17 years old, and found that, among higher income families, genetic influences accounted for approximately 55% of the variance in cognitive aptitude and shared environmental influences about 35%. Among lower income families, the proportions were in the reverse direction, 39% genetic and 45% shared environment."^[51]

In the course of a substantial review, Rushton and Jensen (2010) criticized the study of Capron and Duyme, arguing their choice of IQ test and selection of child and adolescent subjects were a poor choice because this gives a relatively less hereditable measure.^[30] The argument here rests on a strong form of Spearman's hypothesis, that the hereditability of different kinds of IQ test can vary according to how closely they correlate to the general intelligence factor (g); both the empirical data and statistical methodology bearing on this question are matters of active controversy.^[52]^[53]^[54]

A 2011 study by Tucker-Drob and colleagues reported that at age 2, genes accounted for approximately 50% of the variation in mental ability for children being raised in high socioeconomic status families, but genes accounted for negligible variation in mental ability for children being raised in low socioeconomic status families. This gene–environment interaction was not apparent at age 10 months, suggesting that the effect emerges over the course of early development.^[55]

A 2012 study based on a representative sample of twins from the United Kingdom, with longitudinal data on IQ from age two to age fourteen, did not find evidence for lower heritability in low-SES families. However, the study indicated that the effects of shared family environment on IQ were generally greater in low-SES families than in high-SES families, resulting in greater variance in IQ in low-SES families. The authors noted that previous research had produced inconsistent results on whether or not SES moderates the heritability of IQ. They suggested three explanations for the inconsistency. First, some studies may have lacked statistical power to detect interactions. Second, the age range investigated has varied between studies. Third, the effect of SES may vary in different demographics and different countries.^[56]

A 2017 King's College London study suggests that genes account for nearly 50 per cent of the differences between whether children are socially mobile or not.^[57]

Between-group heritability

In the US, individuals identifying themselves as Asian generally tend to score higher on IQ tests than Caucasians, who tend to score higher than Hispanics, who tend to score higher than African Americans –– despite the fact that greater variation in IQ scores exists within each ethnic group than between them.^[58] Yet, although IQ differences between individuals have been shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that between-group differences in average IQ have a genetic basis.^[13]^[14]^[20] The scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain average differences in IQ test performance between racial groups.^[16]^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21] Growing evidence indicates that environmental factors, not genetic ones, explain the racial IQ gap.^[20]^[21]

Arguments in support of a genetic explanation of racial differences in average IQ are sometimes fallacious. For instance, some hereditarians have cited as evidence the failure of known environmental factors to account for such differences, or the high heritability of intelligence within races.^[13] Jensen and Rushton, in their formulation of Spearman's Hypothesis, argued that cognitive tasks that have the highest g-load are the tasks in which the gap between black and white test takers is greatest, and that this supports their view that racial IQ gaps are in large part genetic.^[59] However, in separate reviews, Mackintosh, Nisbett et al. and Flynn have all concluded that the slight correlation between g-loading and the test score gap offers no clue to the cause of the gap.^[60]^[61]^[62] Further reviews of both adoption studies and racial admixture studies have also found no evidence for a genetic component behind group-level IQ differences.^[63]^[64]^[65] Hereditarian arguments for racial differences in IQ have been criticized from a theoretical point of view as well. For example, the geneticist and neuroscientist Kevin Mitchell has argued that "systematic genetic differences in intelligence between large, ancient populations" are "inherently and deeply implausible" because the "constant churn of genetic variation works against any long-term rise or fall in intelligence."^[15] As he argues, "To end up with systematic genetic differences in intelligence between large, ancient populations, the selective forces driving those differences would need to have been enormous. What's more, those forces would have to have acted across entire continents, with wildly different environments, and have been persistent over tens of thousands of years of tremendous cultural change."^[15]

In favor of an environmental explanation, on the other hand, numerous studies and reviews have shown promising results. Among these, some focus on the gradual closing of the black–white IQ gap over the last decades of the 20th century, as black test-takers increased their average scores relative to white test-takers. For instance, Vincent reported in 1991 that the black–white IQ gap was decreasing among children, but that it was remaining constant among adults.^[66] Similarly, a 2006 study by Dickens and Flynn estimated that the difference between mean scores of black people and white people closed by about 5 or 6 IQ points between 1972 and 2002, a reduction of about one-third.^[67] In the same period, the educational achievement disparity also diminished.^[68] Reviews by Flynn and Dickens, Mackintosh, and Nisbett et al. all accept the gradual closing of the gap as a fact.^[67]^[69] Other recent studies have focused on disparities in nutrition and prenatal care, as well as other health-related environmental disparities, and have found that these disparities may account for significant IQ gaps between population groups.^[70]^[71]^[72] Still other studies have focused on educational disparities, and have found that intensive early childhood education and test preparation can diminish or eliminate the black–white IQ test gap.^[73]^[74]^[75] In light of these and similar findings, a consensus has formed that genetics does not explain differences in average IQ test performance between racial groups.^[16]^[20]

Notes and references

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↑ Turkheimer, Eric; Haley, Andreana; Waldron, Mary; d'Onofrio, Brian; Gottesman, Irving I. (2003). "Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of iq in young children". Psychological Science. 14 (6): 623–8. doi:10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1475.x. PMID 14629696. S2CID 11265284
↑ Nagoshi, Craig T.; Johnson, Ronald C. (2004). "Socioeconomic Status Does Not Moderate the Familiality of Cognitive Abilities in the Hawaii Family Study of Cognition". Journal of Biosocial Science. 37 (6): 773–81. doi:10.1017/S0021932004007023. PMID 16221325. S2CID 608104
↑ Asbury, K; Wachs, T; Plomin, R (2005). "Environmental moderators of genetic influence on verbal and nonverbal abilities in early childhood". Intelligence. 33 (6): 643–61. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2005.03.008
↑ Harden, K. Paige; Turkheimer, Eric; Loehlin, John C. (2006). "Genotype by Environment Interaction in Adolescents' Cognitive Aptitude". Behavior Genetics. 37 (2): 273–83. doi:10.1007/s10519-006-9113-4
↑ Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2005). Problems with the method of correlated vectors. Intelligence, 33(4), 431–444.
↑ Dickens, William T.; Flynn, James R. (2006). "Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence from Standardization Samples" (PDF). Psychological Science. 17 (10): 913–920. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x. PMID 17100793. S2CID 6593169. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-11-05. Retrieved 2020-06-24.
↑ Flynn, J. R. (2010). The spectacles through which I see the race and IQ debate. Intelligence, 38(4), 363–366.
↑ Tucker-Drob, E. M.; Rhemtulla, M.; Harden, K. P.; Turkheimer, E.; Fask, D. (2010). "Emergence of a Gene x Socioeconomic Status Interaction on Infant Mental Ability Between 10 Months and 2 Years". Psychological Science. 22 (1): 125–33. doi:10.1177/0956797610392926. PMC 3532898. PMID 21169524.
↑ Hanscombe, Ken B.; Trzaskowski, Maciej; Haworth, Claire M. A.; Davis, Oliver S. P.; Dale, Philip S.; Plomin, Robert (2012). Scott, James G (ed.). "Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Children's Intelligence (IQ): In a UK-Representative Sample SES Moderates the Environmental, Not Genetic, Effect on IQ". PLOS ONE. 7 (2): e30320. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...730320H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030320. PMC 3270016. PMID 22312423.
↑ Ayorech, Ziada (July 17, 2017). "Genetic Influence on Intergenerational Educational Attainment". Psychological Science. 28 (9): 1302–1310. doi:10.1177/0956797617707270. PMC 5595239. PMID 28715641
↑ Template:Cite book
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↑ ^67.0 ^67.1 {{#if:Dickens |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Dickens |Dickens{{#if: William T. |, William T. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Dickens |Dickens{{#if: William T. |, William T. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Dickens |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2006 | (2006) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Dickens | . }}{{#if:Dickens2006 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://www.brookings.edu/views/papers/dickens/20060619_IQ.pdf |Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence from Standardization Samples |Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence from Standardization Samples }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Psychological Science |. Psychological Science }}{{#if:17 | 17 }}{{#if:10 | (10) }}{{#if:913–20 |: 913–20 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x |. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if:17100793 |. PMID 17100793 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
↑ Neisser, Ulric (Ed). 1998. The rising curve: Long-term gains in IQ and related measures. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association
↑
{{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2012a |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2012a) | (2012a) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2012a | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/nisbett2012int.pdf |Intelligence: new findings and theoretical developments |Intelligence: new findings and theoretical developments }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:American Psychologist |. American Psychologist }}{{#if:67 | 67 }}{{#if: | ({{{issue}}}) }}{{#if:130–159 |: 130–159 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/a0026699 |. doi:10.1037/a0026699 }}{{#if:0003-066X |. ISSN 0003-066X }}{{#if:22233090 |. PMID 22233090 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
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↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2007 |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2007) | (2007) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2007 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Racial equality in intelligence: Predictions from a theory of intelligence as processing] |Racial equality in intelligence: Predictions from a theory of intelligence as processing }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Intelligence |. Intelligence }}{{#if:35 | 35 }}{{#if:4 | (4) }}{{#if:319–334 |: 319–334 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.009 |. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.009 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}

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External links

Template:Cite web Free Massively Open Online Course on human behavior genetics by Matt McGue of the University of Minnesota, including unit on genetics of human intelligence

Template:Human intelligence topics

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[SAGE-58] Template:Cite book

[59] {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2005 | (2005) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2005 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F1076-8971.11.2.235 |Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability |Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Psychology, Public Policy, and Law |. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law }}{{#if:11 | 11 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:235–294 |: 235–294 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.235 |. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.235 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}

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[61] {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2012a |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2012a) | (2012a) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2012a | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/nisbett2012int.pdf |Intelligence: new findings and theoretical developments |Intelligence: new findings and theoretical developments }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:American Psychologist |. American Psychologist }}{{#if:67 | 67 }}{{#if: | ({{{issue}}}) }}{{#if:130–159 |: 130–159 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/a0026699 |. doi:10.1037/a0026699 }}{{#if:0003-066X |. ISSN 0003-066X }}{{#if:22233090 |. PMID 22233090 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
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[62] Template:Cite web

[62] {{#if:Flynn |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Flynn |Flynn{{#if: James R. |, James R. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Flynn |Flynn{{#if: James R. |, James R. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Flynn |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2010 |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2010) | (2010) }} }} }}{{#if:Flynn | . }}{{#if:Flynn2010 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/flynn2010a.pdf |The spectacles through which I see the race and IQ debate |The spectacles through which I see the race and IQ debate }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Intelligence |. Intelligence }}{{#if:38 | 38 }}{{#if:4 | (4) }}{{#if:363–366 |: 363–366 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1016/j.intell.2010.05.001 |. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2010.05.001 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}

[63] {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2017 |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2017) | (2017) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2017 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Racial IQ Differences among Transracial Adoptees: Fact or Artifact?] |Racial IQ Differences among Transracial Adoptees: Fact or Artifact? }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Journal of Intelligence |. Journal of Intelligence }}{{#if:5 | 5 }}{{#if:1 | (1) }}{{#if: |: {{{pages}}} }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.3390/jintelligence5010001 |. doi:10.3390/jintelligence5010001 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if:31162392 |. PMID 31162392 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}

[64] Template:Cite book

[65] Template:Cite book

[66] {{#if:Vincent |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Vincent |Vincent{{#if: Ken R. |, Ken R. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Vincent |Vincent{{#if: Ken R. |, Ken R. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Vincent |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:March 1991 | (March 1991) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Vincent | . }}{{#if:VincentMarch 1991 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1097-4679(199103)47:2%3C266::AID-JCLP2270470213%3E3.0.CO;2-S |Black/white IQ differences: Does age make the difference? |Black/white IQ differences: Does age make the difference? }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Journal of Clinical Psychology |. Journal of Clinical Psychology }}{{#if:47 | 47 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:266–270 |: 266–270 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1002/1097-4679(199103)47:2<266::AID-JCLP2270470213>3.0.CO;2-S |. doi:<266::AID-JCLP2270470213>3.0.CO;2-S 10.1002/1097-4679(199103)47:2<266::AID-JCLP2270470213>3.0.CO;2-S }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if:2030133 |. PMID 2030133 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article{{#if: Black/white IQ differences: Does age make the difference? | &rft.atitle=Black%2Fwhite+IQ+differences%3A+Does+age+make+the+difference%3F }}{{#if: Journal of Clinical Psychology | &rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Psychology }}{{#if: March 1991 | &rft.date=March+1991 | {{#if: | &rft.date=%7B%7B%7Byear%7D%7D%7D }} }}{{#if: 47 | &rft.volume=47 }}{{#if: 2 | &rft.issue=2 }}{{#if: | &rft.au=%7B%7B%7Bauthor%7D%7D%7D }}{{#if: Vincent | &rft.aulast=Vincent }}{{#if: Ken R. | &rft.aufirst=Ken+R. }}{{#if: 266–270 | &rft.pages=266%E2%80%93270 }}{{#if: | &rft.issn=%7B%7B%7Bissn%7D%7D%7D }}{{#if: 2030133 | &rft_id=info:pmid/2030133}}{{#if: 10.1002/1097-4679(199103)47:2<266::AID-JCLP2270470213>3.0.CO;2-S | &rft_id=info:doi/10.1002%2F1097-4679%28199103%2947%3A2%3C266%3A%3AAID-JCLP2270470213%3E3.0.CO%3B2-S }}{{#if: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1097-4679(199103)47:2%3C266::AID-JCLP2270470213%3E3.0.CO;2-S | &rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2F1097-4679%28199103%2947%3A2%253C266%3A%3AAID-JCLP2270470213%253E3.0.CO%3B2-S }}">

[:8-67] 67.0 ^67.1 {{#if:Dickens |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Dickens |Dickens{{#if: William T. |, William T. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Dickens |Dickens{{#if: William T. |, William T. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Dickens |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2006 | (2006) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Dickens | . }}{{#if:Dickens2006 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://www.brookings.edu/views/papers/dickens/20060619_IQ.pdf |Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence from Standardization Samples |Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence from Standardization Samples }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Psychological Science |. Psychological Science }}{{#if:17 | 17 }}{{#if:10 | (10) }}{{#if:913–20 |: 913–20 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x |. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if:17100793 |. PMID 17100793 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}

[68] Neisser, Ulric (Ed). 1998. The rising curve: Long-term gains in IQ and related measures. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association

[69] {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2012a |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2012a) | (2012a) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2012a | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/nisbett2012int.pdf |Intelligence: new findings and theoretical developments |Intelligence: new findings and theoretical developments }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:American Psychologist |. American Psychologist }}{{#if:67 | 67 }}{{#if: | ({{{issue}}}) }}{{#if:130–159 |: 130–159 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/a0026699 |. doi:10.1037/a0026699 }}{{#if:0003-066X |. ISSN 0003-066X }}{{#if:22233090 |. PMID 22233090 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
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[74] {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2002 |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2002) | (2002) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2002 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Equal opportunity and racial differences in IQ] |Equal opportunity and racial differences in IQ }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Intelligence |. Intelligence }}{{#if:30 | 30 }}{{#if:4 | (4) }}{{#if:361–387 |: 361–387 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00080-6 |. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00080-6 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}

[75] {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2007 |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2007) | (2007) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2007 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Racial equality in intelligence: Predictions from a theory of intelligence as processing] |Racial equality in intelligence: Predictions from a theory of intelligence as processing }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Intelligence |. Intelligence }}{{#if:35 | 35 }}{{#if:4 | (4) }}{{#if:319–334 |: 319–334 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.009 |. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.009 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}

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-Research on the '''heritability of IQ''' inquires into the degree of variation in IQ within a [[population]] that is due to [[genetic variation]] between individuals in that population. There has been significant controversy in the academic community about the heritability of IQ since research on the issue began in the late nineteenth century.<ref name=devlin/><ref name="rose">Rose, Steven P R (June 2006). "Commentary: Heritability estimates—long past their sell-by date". ''International Journal of Epidemiology''. '''35''' (3): 525–527. doi:10.1093/ije/dyl064. <nowiki>PMID 16645027</nowiki></ref> [[Intelligence]] in the normal range is a [[Quantitative trait locus#Quantitative traits|polygenic trait]], meaning that it is influenced by more than one gene,<ref>Alice Marcus. 2010. Human Genetics: An Overview. Alpha Science section 14.5</ref><ref name="Davies2011">Davies, G.; Tenesa, A.; Payton, A.; Yang, J.; Harris, S. E.; Liewald, D.; Deary, I. J. (2011). "Genome-wide association studies establish that human intelligence is highly heritable and polygenic". ''Molecular Psychiatry''. '''16''' (10): 996–1005. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.85. PMC 3182557. <nowiki>PMID 21826061</nowiki></ref> and in the case of intelligence at least 500 genes.<ref>Association, New Scientist staff and Press. "Found: more than 500 genes that are linked to intelligence". ''New Scientist''. Archived from the original on 2019-12-13. Retrieved 2018-11-29.</ref> Further, explaining the similarity in IQ of closely related persons requires careful study because environmental factors may be correlated with genetic factors.
+Research on the '''heritability of IQ''' inquires into the degree of variation in IQ within a [[population]] that is due to [[genetic variation]] between individuals in that population. There has been significant controversy in the academic community about the heritability of IQ since research on the issue began in the late nineteenth century.<ref name="devlin">Devlin, B.; Daniels, Michael; Roeder, Kathryn (1997). "The heritability of IQ". ''Nature''. '''388''' (6641): 468–71. Bibcode:1997Natur.388..468D. doi:10.1038/41319. <nowiki>PMID 9242404</nowiki>. S2CID 4313884</ref><ref name="rose">Rose, Steven P R (June 2006). "Commentary: Heritability estimates—long past their sell-by date". ''International Journal of Epidemiology''. '''35''' (3): 525–527. doi:10.1093/ije/dyl064. <nowiki>PMID 16645027</nowiki></ref> [[Intelligence]] in the normal range is a [[Quantitative trait locus#Quantitative traits|polygenic trait]], meaning that it is influenced by more than one gene,<ref>Alice Marcus. 2010. Human Genetics: An Overview. Alpha Science section 14.5</ref><ref name="Davies2011">Davies, G.; Tenesa, A.; Payton, A.; Yang, J.; Harris, S. E.; Liewald, D.; Deary, I. J. (2011). "Genome-wide association studies establish that human intelligence is highly heritable and polygenic". ''Molecular Psychiatry''. '''16''' (10): 996–1005. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.85. PMC 3182557. <nowiki>PMID 21826061</nowiki></ref> and in the case of intelligence at least 500 genes.<ref>Association, New Scientist staff and Press. "Found: more than 500 genes that are linked to intelligence". ''New Scientist''. Archived from the original on 2019-12-13. Retrieved 2018-11-29.</ref> Further, explaining the similarity in IQ of closely related persons requires careful study because environmental factors may be correlated with genetic factors.
-Early [[Twin study|twin studies]] of adult individuals have found a heritability of IQ between 57% and 73%,<ref name=pmid12486697/> with some recent studies showing heritability for IQ as high as 80%.<ref name="Bouchard2013W" /> IQ goes from being weakly correlated with genetics for children, to being strongly correlated with genetics for late teens and adults. The heritability of IQ increases with the child's age and reaches a plateau at 14–16<ref>Icenogle, G.; Steinberg, L.; Duell, N.; Chein, J.; Chang, L.; Chaudhary, N.; Di Giunta, L.; Dodge, K. A.; Fanti, K. A.; Lansford, J. E.; Oburu, P.; Pastorelli, C.; Skinner, A. T.; Sorbring, E.; Tapanya, S.; Tirado, L. M.; Alampay, L. P.; Al-Hassan, S. M.; Takash, H. M.; Bacchini, D. (2019). "Adolescents' Cognitive Capacity Reaches Adult Levels Prior to Their Psychosocial Maturity: Evidence for a "Maturity Gap" in a Multinational, Cross-Sectional Sample". ''Law and Human Behavior''. '''43''' (1): 69–85. doi:10.1037/lhb0000315. PMC 6551607. <nowiki>PMID 30762417</nowiki></ref> years old, continuing at that level well into adulthood. However, poor prenatal environment, malnutrition and disease are known to have lifelong deleterious effects.<ref>Eppig, C. (2010). "Parasite prevalence and the worldwide distribution of cognitive ability". ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences''. '''277''' (1701): 3801–3808. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.0973. PMC 2992705. <nowiki>PMID 20591860</nowiki></ref><ref>Lutter, C. K.; Lutter, R. (2012). "Fetal and Early Childhood Undernutrition, Mortality, and Lifelong Health". ''Science''. '''337''' (6101): 1495–1499. Bibcode:2012Sci...337.1495L. doi:10.1126/science.1224616. hdl:1903/24471. <nowiki>PMID 22997328</nowiki>. S2CID 45170027</ref><ref>Daniele, V. (2013). "The burden of disease and the IQ of nations". ''Learning and Individual Differences''. '''28''': 109–118. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2013.09.015.</ref>
+Early [[Twin study|twin studies]] of adult individuals have found a heritability of IQ between 57% and 73%,<ref name="pmid12486697">Bouchard, Thomas J.; McGue, Matt (January 2003). "Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences". ''Journal of Neurobiology''. '''54''' (1): 4–45. doi:10.1002/neu.10160. <nowiki>PMID 12486697</nowiki></ref> with some recent studies showing heritability for IQ as high as 80%.<ref name="Bouchard2013W" /> IQ goes from being weakly correlated with genetics for children, to being strongly correlated with genetics for late teens and adults. The heritability of IQ increases with the child's age and reaches a plateau at 14–16<ref>Icenogle, G.; Steinberg, L.; Duell, N.; Chein, J.; Chang, L.; Chaudhary, N.; Di Giunta, L.; Dodge, K. A.; Fanti, K. A.; Lansford, J. E.; Oburu, P.; Pastorelli, C.; Skinner, A. T.; Sorbring, E.; Tapanya, S.; Tirado, L. M.; Alampay, L. P.; Al-Hassan, S. M.; Takash, H. M.; Bacchini, D. (2019). "Adolescents' Cognitive Capacity Reaches Adult Levels Prior to Their Psychosocial Maturity: Evidence for a "Maturity Gap" in a Multinational, Cross-Sectional Sample". ''Law and Human Behavior''. '''43''' (1): 69–85. doi:10.1037/lhb0000315. PMC 6551607. <nowiki>PMID 30762417</nowiki></ref> years old, continuing at that level well into adulthood. However, poor prenatal environment, malnutrition and disease are known to have lifelong deleterious effects.<ref>Eppig, C. (2010). "Parasite prevalence and the worldwide distribution of cognitive ability". ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences''. '''277''' (1701): 3801–3808. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.0973. PMC 2992705. <nowiki>PMID 20591860</nowiki></ref><ref>Lutter, C. K.; Lutter, R. (2012). "Fetal and Early Childhood Undernutrition, Mortality, and Lifelong Health". ''Science''. '''337''' (6101): 1495–1499. Bibcode:2012Sci...337.1495L. doi:10.1126/science.1224616. hdl:1903/24471. <nowiki>PMID 22997328</nowiki>. S2CID 45170027</ref><ref>Daniele, V. (2013). "The burden of disease and the IQ of nations". ''Learning and Individual Differences''. '''28''': 109–118. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2013.09.015.</ref>
 Although IQ differences between individuals have been shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that disparities in IQ between groups have a genetic basis.<ref>Visscher, Peter M.; Hill, William G.; Wray, Naomi R. (2008). "Heritability in the genomics era – concepts and misconceptions". ''Nature Reviews Genetics''. '''9''' (4): 255–266. doi:10.1038/nrg2322. <nowiki>PMID 18319743</nowiki>. S2CID 690431</ref><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":1">Nisbett, Richard E.; Aronson, Joshua; Blair, Clancy; Dickens, William; Flynn, James; Halpern, Diane F.; Turkheimer, Eric (2012). "Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments". ''American Psychologist''. '''67''' (2): 130–159. doi:10.1037/a0026699. ISSN 1935-990X. <nowiki>PMID 22233090</nowiki></ref><ref name=":0">Mitchell, Kevin (2 May 2018). "Why genetic IQ differences between 'races' are unlikely: The idea that intelligence can differ between populations has made headlines again, but the rules of evolution make it implausible". ''The Guardian''. Archived from the original on 29 June 2020. Retrieved 13 June 2020.</ref> The scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain [[Race and intelligence|average differences in IQ test performance between racial groups.]]<ref name=":2">Ceci, Stephen; Williams, Wendy M. (1 February 2009). "Should scientists study race and IQ? YES: The scientific truth must be pursued". ''Nature''. '''457''' (7231): 788–789. Bibcode:2009Natur.457..788C. doi:10.1038/457788a. <nowiki>PMID 19212385</nowiki>. S2CID 205044224. <q>There is an emerging consensus about racial and gender equality in genetic determinants of intelligence; most researchers, including ourselves, agree that genes do not explain between-group differences.</q></ref><ref>Panofsky, Aaron; Dasgupta, Kushan; Iturriaga, Nicole (28 September 2020). "How White nationalists mobilize genetics: From genetic ancestry and human biodiversity to counterscience and metapolitics". ''American Journal of Physical Anthropology''. '''175''' (2): 387–398.</ref><ref name=":6">Hunt, Earl (2010). ''Human Intelligence''. Cambridge University Press. p. 447. ISBN <bdi>978-0-521-70781-7</bdi>. OL 24384631M – via Open Library.</ref><ref name=":7">Mackintosh, N. J. (2011). ''IQ and human intelligence'' (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 334–338, 344. ISBN <bdi>978-0-19-958559-5</bdi>. OCLC 669754008. OL 25211083M – via Open Library.</ref><ref name=":02">Nisbett, Richard E.; Aronson, Joshua; Blair, Clancy; Dickens, William; Flynn, James; Halpern, Diane F.; Turkheimer, Eric (2012). "Group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin"</ref><ref name=":5">Kaplan, Jonathan Michael (January 2015). "Race, IQ, and the search for statistical signals associated with so-called "X"-factors: environments, racism, and the "hereditarian hypothesis"". ''Biology & Philosophy''. '''30''' (1): 1–17. doi:10.1007/s10539-014-9428-0. ISSN 0169-3867</ref>
 == Heritability and caveats ==
-Heritability is a [[statistic]] used in the fields of [[Animal husbandry|breeding]] and [[genetics]] that estimates the degree of ''variation'' in a [[phenotypic trait]] in a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population.<ref name="scitable-estimating">{{cite journal |last1=Wray |first1=Naomi |last2=Visscher |first2=Peter |name-list-style=vanc |date=2008 |title=Estimating Trait Heritability |url=http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/estimating-trait-heritability-46889 |url-status=live |journal=Nature Education |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150802043009/http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/estimating-trait-heritability-46889 |archive-date=2 August 2015 |access-date=24 July 2015}}</ref>  The concept of heritability can be expressed in the form of the following question: "What is the proportion of the variation in a given trait within a population that is ''not'' explained by the environment or random chance?"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gazzaniga |first1=Michael S |title=Psychological science |last2=Heatherton |first2=Todd F |last3=Halpern |first3=Diane F |date=February 2015 |isbn=978-0-393-26313-8 |edition=5th |location=New York |oclc=908409996 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>
+Heritability is a [[statistic]] used in the fields of [[Animal husbandry|breeding]] and [[genetics]] that estimates the degree of ''variation'' in a [[phenotypic trait]] in a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population.<ref name="scitable-estimating">Wray N, Visscher P (2008). "Estimating Trait Heritability". ''Nature Education''. '''1''' (1): 29. Archived from the original on 2 August 2015. Retrieved 24 July 2015.</ref>  The concept of heritability can be expressed in the form of the following question: "What is the proportion of the variation in a given trait within a population that is ''not'' explained by the environment or random chance?"<ref>Gazzaniga MS, Heatherton TF, Halpern DF (February 2015). Psychological science (5th ed.). New York. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-393-26313-8</nowiki>. OCLC 908409996.</ref>
-Estimates of heritability take values ranging from 0 to 1; a heritability estimate of 1 indicates that all variation in the trait in question is genetic in origin and a heritability estimate of 0 indicates that ''none'' of the variation is genetic. The determination of many traits can be considered primarily [[genetics|genetic]] under similar environmental backgrounds. For example, a 2006 study found that adult height has a heritability estimated at 0.80 when looking only at the height variation within families where the environment should be very similar.<ref name="identity">{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020041 |title=Assumption-Free Estimation of Heritability from Genome-Wide Identity-by-Descent Sharing between Full Siblings |year=2006 |last1=Visscher |first1=Peter M. |last2=Medland |first2=Sarah E. |author-link2=Sarah Medland |last3=Ferreira |first3=Manuel A. R. |last4=Morley |first4=Katherine I. |last5=Zhu |first5=Gu |last6=Cornes |first6=Belinda K. |last7=Montgomery |first7=Grant W. |last8=Martin |first8=Nicholas G. |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=e41 |pmid=16565746 |pmc=1413498 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Other traits have lower heritability estimates, which indicate a relatively larger environmental influence. For example, a [[twin study]] on the heritability of depression in men estimated it as 0.29, while it was 0.42 for women in the same study.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.109 |title=A Swedish National Twin Study of Lifetime Major Depression |year=2006 |last1=Kendler |first1=K. S. |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=163 |pages=109–14 |pmid=16390897 |last2=Gatz |first2=M |last3=Gardner |first3=CO |last4=Pedersen |first4=NL |issue=1|s2cid=25398383 }}</ref>
+Estimates of heritability take values ranging from 0 to 1; a heritability estimate of 1 indicates that all variation in the trait in question is genetic in origin and a heritability estimate of 0 indicates that ''none'' of the variation is genetic. The determination of many traits can be considered primarily [[genetics|genetic]] under similar environmental backgrounds. For example, a 2006 study found that adult height has a heritability estimated at 0.80 when looking only at the height variation within families where the environment should be very similar.<ref name="identity">Visscher, Peter M.; Medland, Sarah E.; Ferreira, Manuel A. R.; Morley, Katherine I.; Zhu, Gu; Cornes, Belinda K.; Montgomery, Grant W.; Martin, Nicholas G. (2006). "Assumption-Free Estimation of Heritability from Genome-Wide Identity-by-Descent Sharing between Full Siblings". ''PLOS Genetics''. '''2''' (3): e41. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020041. PMC 1413498. <nowiki>PMID 16565746</nowiki></ref> Other traits have lower heritability estimates, which indicate a relatively larger environmental influence. For example, a [[twin study]] on the heritability of depression in men estimated it as 0.29, while it was 0.42 for women in the same study.<ref>Kendler, K. S.; Gatz, M; Gardner, CO; Pedersen, NL (2006). "A Swedish National Twin Study of Lifetime Major Depression". ''American Journal of Psychiatry''. '''163''' (1): 109–14. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.109. <nowiki>PMID 16390897</nowiki>. S2CID 25398383.</ref>
 === Caveats ===
 There are a number of points to consider when interpreting heritability:
-* Heritability measures the proportion of ''variation'' in a trait that can be attributed to genes, and not the proportion of a trait caused by genes.{{cn|date=August 2022}} Thus, if the environment relevant to a given trait changes in a way that affects all members of the population equally, the mean value of the trait will change without any change in its heritability (because the variation or differences among individuals in the population will stay the same). This has evidently happened for height: the heritability of stature is high, but average heights continue to increase.<ref name="unknown">{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77 |title=Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns |year=1996 |last1=Neisser |first1=Ulric |last2=Boodoo |first2=Gwyneth |last3=Bouchard |first3=Thomas J. Jr. |last4=Boykin |first4=A. Wade |last5=Brody |first5=Nathan |last6=Ceci |first6=Stephen J. |last7=Halpern |first7=Diane F. |last8=Loehlin |first8=John C. |last9=Perloff |first9=Robert |last10=Sternberg |first10=Robert J. |last11=Urbina |first11=Susana |journal=American Psychologist |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=77–101|display-authors=8 }}</ref> Thus, even in developed nations, a high heritability of a trait does not necessarily mean that average group differences are due to genes.<ref name="unknown"/><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Jeanne |last1=Brooks-Gunn |first2=Pamela K. |last2=Klebanov |first3=Greg J. |last3=Duncan |year=1996 |title=Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics |journal=Child Development |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=396–408 |jstor=1131822 |doi=10.2307/1131822 |pmid=8625720}}</ref> Some have gone further, and used height as an example in order to argue that "even highly heritable traits can be strongly manipulated by the environment, so heritability has little if anything to do with controllability."<ref name="JohnsonBouchard2009">{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01639.x |title=Beyond Heritability: Twin Studies in Behavioral Research |year=2009 |last1=Johnson |first1=Wendy |last2=Turkheimer |first2=Eric |last3=Gottesman |first3=Irving I. |last4=Bouchard Jr. |first4=Thomas J. |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=217–20 |pmid=20625474 |pmc=2899491}}</ref>
+* Heritability measures the proportion of ''variation'' in a trait that can be attributed to genes, and not the proportion of a trait caused by genes. Thus, if the environment relevant to a given trait changes in a way that affects all members of the population equally, the mean value of the trait will change without any change in its heritability (because the variation or differences among individuals in the population will stay the same). This has evidently happened for height: the heritability of stature is high, but average heights continue to increase.<ref name="unknown">Neisser, Ulric; Boodoo, Gwyneth; Bouchard, Thomas J. Jr.; Boykin, A. Wade; Brody, Nathan; Ceci, Stephen J.; Halpern, Diane F.; Loehlin, John C.; et al. (1996). "Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns". ''American Psychologist''. '''51''' (2): 77–101. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.7</ref> Thus, even in developed nations, a high heritability of a trait does not necessarily mean that average group differences are due to genes.<ref name="unknown"/><ref>Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne; Klebanov, Pamela K.; Duncan, Greg J. (1996). "Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics". ''Child Development''. '''67''' (2): 396–408. doi:10.2307/1131822. JSTOR 1131822. <nowiki>PMID 8625720</nowiki></ref> Some have gone further, and used height as an example in order to argue that "even highly heritable traits can be strongly manipulated by the environment, so heritability has little if anything to do with controllability."<ref name="JohnsonBouchard2009">Johnson, Wendy; Turkheimer, Eric; Gottesman, Irving I.; Bouchard Jr., Thomas J. (2009). "Beyond Heritability: Twin Studies in Behavioral Research". ''Current Directions in Psychological Science''. '''18''' (4): 217–20. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01639.x. PMC 2899491. <nowiki>PMID 20625474</nowiki></ref>
-* A common error is to assume that a heritability figure is necessarily unchangeable. The value of heritability can change if the impact of environment (or of genes) in the population is substantially altered.<ref name="unknown"/> If the environmental variation encountered by different individuals increases, then the heritability figure would decrease. On the other hand, if everyone had the same environment, then heritability would be 100%. The population in developing nations often has more diverse environments than in developed nations. This would mean that heritability figures would be lower in developing nations. Another example is [[phenylketonuria]] which previously caused mental retardation for everyone who had this genetic disorder and thus had a heritability of 100%. Today, this can be prevented by following a modified diet, resulting in a lowered heritability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haworth |first1=Claire |last2=Davis |first2=Oliver |date=2014 |title=From observational to dynamic genetics |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |volume=5 |page=6 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2014.00006 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=3896969 |pmid=24478793 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+* A common error is to assume that a heritability figure is necessarily unchangeable. The value of heritability can change if the impact of environment (or of genes) in the population is substantially altered.<ref name="unknown"/> If the environmental variation encountered by different individuals increases, then the heritability figure would decrease. On the other hand, if everyone had the same environment, then heritability would be 100%. The population in developing nations often has more diverse environments than in developed nations. This would mean that heritability figures would be lower in developing nations. Another example is [[phenylketonuria]] which previously caused mental retardation for everyone who had this genetic disorder and thus had a heritability of 100%. Today, this can be prevented by following a modified diet, resulting in a lowered heritability.<ref>Haworth, Claire; Davis, Oliver (2014). "From observational to dynamic genetics". ''Frontiers in Genetics''. '''5''': 6. doi:10.3389/fgene.2014.00006. ISSN 1664-8021. PMC 3896969. <nowiki>PMID 24478793</nowiki></ref>
 * A high heritability of a trait does not mean that environmental effects such as learning are not involved. Vocabulary size, for example, is very substantially heritable (and highly correlated with general intelligence) although every word in an individual's vocabulary is learned. In a society in which plenty of words are available in everyone's environment, especially for individuals who are motivated to seek them out, the number of words that individuals actually learn depends to a considerable extent on their genetic predispositions and thus heritability is high.<ref name="unknown"/>
-* Since heritability increases during childhood and adolescence, and even increases greatly between 16 and 20 years of age and adulthood, one should be cautious drawing conclusions regarding the role of genetics and environment from studies where the participants are not followed until they are adults. Furthermore, there may be differences regarding the effects on the ''[[g factor (psychometrics)|g-factor]]'' and on non-g factors, with ''g'' possibly being harder to affect and environmental interventions disproportionately affecting non-''g'' factors.<ref name=RJ2010>{{cite journal |doi=10.2174/1874350101003010009 |title=Race and IQ: A Theory-Based Review of the Research in Richard Nisbett's Intelligence and How to Get It |year=2010 |last1=Rushton |first1=J. Philippe |last2=Jensen |first2=Arthur R. |journal=The Open Psychology Journal |volume=3 |pages=9–35|doi-access=free }}</ref>
+* Since heritability increases during childhood and adolescence, and even increases greatly between 16 and 20 years of age and adulthood, one should be cautious drawing conclusions regarding the role of genetics and environment from studies where the participants are not followed until they are adults. Furthermore, there may be differences regarding the effects on the ''[[g factor (psychometrics)|g-factor]]'' and on non-g factors, with ''g'' possibly being harder to affect and environmental interventions disproportionately affecting non-''g'' factors.<ref name="RJ2010">Rushton, J. Philippe; Jensen, Arthur R. (2010). "Race and IQ: A Theory-Based Review of the Research in Richard Nisbett's Intelligence and How to Get It". ''The Open Psychology Journal''. '''3''': 9–35. doi:10.2174/1874350101003010009</ref>
-* Polygenic traits often appear less heritable at the extremes. A heritable trait is definitionally more likely to appear in the offspring of two parents high in that trait than in the offspring of two randomly selected parents. However, the more extreme the expression of the trait in the parents, the less likely the child is to display the same extreme as the parents. At the same time, the more extreme the expression of the trait in the parents, the more likely the child is to express the trait at all. For example, the child of two extremely tall parents is likely to be taller than the average person (displaying the trait), but unlikely to be taller than the two parents (displaying the trait at the same extreme). See also [[regression toward the mean]].<ref name="HMG4">{{cite book|last1=Strachan|first1=Tom|last2=Read|first2=Andrew|title=Human Molecular Genetics, Fourth Edition|url=https://archive.org/details/humanmolecularge00stra_254|url-access=limited|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York| year=2011|isbn=978-0-8153-4149-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/humanmolecularge00stra_254/page/n93 80]–81}}</ref><ref name="Humphreys1978">{{cite journal |last1=Humphreys |first1=Lloyd G. |title=To understand regression from parent to offspring, think statistically |journal=Psychological Bulletin |date=1978 |volume=85 |issue=6 |pages=1317–1322 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.85.6.1317 |pmid=734015 }}</ref>
+* Polygenic traits often appear less heritable at the extremes. A heritable trait is definitionally more likely to appear in the offspring of two parents high in that trait than in the offspring of two randomly selected parents. However, the more extreme the expression of the trait in the parents, the less likely the child is to display the same extreme as the parents. At the same time, the more extreme the expression of the trait in the parents, the more likely the child is to express the trait at all. For example, the child of two extremely tall parents is likely to be taller than the average person (displaying the trait), but unlikely to be taller than the two parents (displaying the trait at the same extreme). See also [[regression toward the mean]].<ref name="HMG4">Strachan, Tom; Read, Andrew (2011). ''Human Molecular Genetics, Fourth Edition''. New York: Garland Science. pp. 80–81. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8153-4149-9</bdi>.</ref><ref name="Humphreys1978">Humphreys, Lloyd G. (1978). "To understand regression from parent to offspring, think statistically". ''Psychological Bulletin''. '''85''' (6): 1317–1322. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.6.1317. <nowiki>PMID 734015</nowiki></ref>
 == Estimates ==
-Various studies have estimated the heritability of IQ to be between 0.7 and 0.8 in adults and 0.45 in childhood in the [[United States]].<ref name="unknown"/><ref name="stable" /><ref name="BibcodeSciBCitationhas">{{cite journal |bibcode=1990Sci...250..223B |title=Sources of Human Psychological Differences: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart |last1=Bouchard |first1=Thomas J. |last2=Lykken |first2=David T. |last3=McGue |first3=Matthew |last4=Segal |first4=Nancy L. |last5=Tellegen |first5=Auke |volume=250 |year=1990 |pages=223–8 |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.2218526 |pmid=2218526 |issue=4978|citeseerx=10.1.1.225.1769 }}</ref> It has been found that estimates of heritability increase as individuals age. Heritability estimates in infancy are as low as 0.2, around 0.4 in middle childhood, and as high as 0.8 in adulthood.<ref name="Bouchard2013W">Bouchard, Thomas J. (7 August 2013). "The Wilson Effect: The Increase in Heritability of IQ With Age". ''Twin Research and Human Genetics''. '''16''' (5): 923–930. doi:10.1017/thg.2013.54. <nowiki>PMID 23919982</nowiki>. S2CID 13747480</ref> The brain undergoes morphological changes in development which suggests that age-related physical changes could contribute to this effect.<ref name="DearyJohnson2009">{{cite journal |last1=Deary |first1=Ian J. |last2=Johnson |first2=W. |last3=Houlihan |first3=L. M. |title=Genetic foundations of human intelligence |journal=Human Genetics |date=18 March 2009 |volume=126 |issue=1 |pages=215–232 |doi=10.1007/s00439-009-0655-4 |pmid=19294424 |s2cid=4975607 |url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/8895353/genetic_foundations_of_human_intelligence.pdf |hdl=20.500.11820/c3e0a75b-dad6-4860-91c6-b242221af681 |hdl-access=free |access-date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801215610/https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/8895353/genetic_foundations_of_human_intelligence.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
+Various studies have estimated the heritability of IQ to be between 0.7 and 0.8 in adults and 0.45 in childhood in the [[United States]].<ref name="unknown"/><ref name="stable" /><ref name="BibcodeSciBCitationhas">Bouchard, Thomas J.; Lykken, David T.; McGue, Matthew; Segal, Nancy L.; Tellegen, Auke (1990). "Sources of Human Psychological Differences: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart". ''Science''. '''250''' (4978): 223–8. Bibcode:1990Sci...250..223B</ref> It has been found that estimates of heritability increase as individuals age. Heritability estimates in infancy are as low as 0.2, around 0.4 in middle childhood, and as high as 0.8 in adulthood.<ref name="Bouchard2013W">Bouchard, Thomas J. (7 August 2013). "The Wilson Effect: The Increase in Heritability of IQ With Age". ''Twin Research and Human Genetics''. '''16''' (5): 923–930. doi:10.1017/thg.2013.54. <nowiki>PMID 23919982</nowiki>. S2CID 13747480</ref> The brain undergoes morphological changes in development which suggests that age-related physical changes could contribute to this effect.<ref name="DearyJohnson2009">Deary, Ian J.; Johnson, W.; Houlihan, L. M. (18 March 2009). "Genetic foundations of human intelligence" (PDF). ''Human Genetics''. '''126''' (1): 215–232. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0655-4. hdl:20.500.11820/c3e0a75b-dad6-4860-91c6-b242221af681</ref>
-A 1994 article in ''Behavior Genetics'' based on a study of Swedish monozygotic and dizygotic twins found the heritability of the sample to be as high as 0.80 in general cognitive ability; however, it also varies by trait, with 0.60 for verbal tests, 0.50 for spatial and speed-of-processing tests, and 0.40 for memory tests. In contrast, studies of other populations estimate an average heritability of 0.50 for general cognitive ability.<ref name=stable>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF01067188 |title=Variability and stability in cognitive abilities are largely genetic later in life |year=1994 |last1=Plomin |first1=R. |last2=Pedersen |first2=N. L. |last3=Lichtenstein |first3=P. |last4=McClearn |first4=G. E. |journal=Behavior Genetics |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=207–15 |pmid=7945151|s2cid=6503298 }}</ref>
+A 1994 article in ''Behavior Genetics'' based on a study of Swedish monozygotic and dizygotic twins found the heritability of the sample to be as high as 0.80 in general cognitive ability; however, it also varies by trait, with 0.60 for verbal tests, 0.50 for spatial and speed-of-processing tests, and 0.40 for memory tests. In contrast, studies of other populations estimate an average heritability of 0.50 for general cognitive ability.<ref name="stable">Plomin, R.; Pedersen, N. L.; Lichtenstein, P.; McClearn, G. E. (1994). "Variability and stability in cognitive abilities are largely genetic later in life". ''Behavior Genetics''. '''24''' (3): 207–15. doi:10.1007/BF01067188. <nowiki>PMID 7945151</nowiki>. S2CID 6503298</ref>
 In 2006, [[David L. Kirp|David Kirp]], writing in ''[[The New York Times Magazine]]'', summarized a century's worth of research as follows, "about three-quarters of I.Q. differences between individuals are attributable to heredity."<ref name=kirp/>
 === Shared family environment ===
-There are some family effects on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. However, adoption studies show that by adulthood adoptive siblings aren't more similar in IQ than strangers,<ref name="PMIDCitationhas">{{cite journal |pmid=9549239 |year=1998 |last1=Bouchard Jr |first1=TJ |title=Genetic and environmental influences on adult intelligence and special mental abilities |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=257–79 |journal=Human Biology}}</ref> while adult full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.24. However, some studies of twins reared apart (e.g. Bouchard, 1990) find a significant shared environmental influence, of at least 10% going into late adulthood.<ref name="BibcodeSciBCitationhas" /> [[Judith Rich Harris]] suggests that this might be due to biasing assumptions in the methodology of the classical twin and adoption studies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harris |first=Judith Rich |title=No Two Alike|url=https://archive.org/details/notwoalikehumann00harr |url-access=registration |year=2006|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=9780393059489 }}{{page needed|date=April 2013}}</ref>
+There are some family effects on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. However, adoption studies show that by adulthood adoptive siblings aren't more similar in IQ than strangers,<ref name="PMIDCitationhas">Bouchard Jr, TJ (1998). "Genetic and environmental influences on adult intelligence and special mental abilities". Human Biology. 70 (2): 257–79. <nowiki>PMID 9549239</nowiki></ref> while adult full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.24. However, some studies of twins reared apart (e.g. Bouchard, 1990) find a significant shared environmental influence, of at least 10% going into late adulthood.<ref name="BibcodeSciBCitationhas" /> [[Judith Rich Harris]] suggests that this might be due to biasing assumptions in the methodology of the classical twin and adoption studies.<ref>Harris, Judith Rich (2006). ''No Two Alike''. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393059489</ref>
-There are aspects of environments that family members have in common (for example, characteristics of the home). This shared family environment accounts for 0.25-0.35 of the variation in IQ in childhood. By late adolescence it is quite low (zero in some studies). There is a similar effect for several other psychological traits. These studies have not looked into the effects of extreme environments such as in abusive families.<ref name="unknown"/><ref name="PMIDCitationhas" /><ref name="Plomin0103">{{cite journal |pmid=11320676 |year=2001 |last1=Plomin |first1=R |last2=Asbury |first2=K |last3=Dunn |first3=J |title=Why are children in the same family so different? Nonshared environment a decade later |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=225–33 |journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry|doi=10.1177/070674370104600302 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Harris | first=Judith Rich | year=1998 |title=The Nurture Assumption: Why children turn out the way they do | location=New York |publisher=Free Press |isbn=978-0-6848-4409-1 |author-link=Judith Rich Harris| title-link=The Nurture Assumption }}</ref>
+There are aspects of environments that family members have in common (for example, characteristics of the home). This shared family environment accounts for 0.25-0.35 of the variation in IQ in childhood. By late adolescence it is quite low (zero in some studies). There is a similar effect for several other psychological traits. These studies have not looked into the effects of extreme environments such as in abusive families.<ref name="unknown"/><ref name="PMIDCitationhas" /><ref name="Plomin0103">Plomin, R; Asbury, K; Dunn, J (2001). "Why are children in the same family so different? Nonshared environment a decade later". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 46 (3): 225–33. doi:10.1177/070674370104600302. <nowiki>PMID 11320676</nowiki></ref><ref>Harris, Judith Rich (1998). The Nurture Assumption: Why children turn out the way they do. New York: Free Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-6848-4409-1</nowiki>.</ref>
 The [[American Psychological Association]]'s report "[[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]]" (1996) states that there is no doubt that normal [[child development]] requires a certain minimum level of responsible care. Severely deprived, neglectful, or abusive environments must have negative effects on a great many aspects of development, including intellectual aspects. Beyond that minimum, however, the role of family experience is in serious dispute. There is no doubt that such variables as resources of the home and parents' use of language are correlated with children's IQ scores, but such correlations may be mediated by genetic as well as (or instead of) environmental factors. But how much of that variance in IQ results from differences between families, as contrasted with the varying experiences of different children in the same family? Recent twin and adoption studies suggest that while the effect of the shared family environment is substantial in early childhood, it becomes quite small by late adolescence. These findings suggest that differences in the life styles of families whatever their importance may be for many aspects of children's lives make little long-term difference for the skills measured by intelligence tests.
 === Non-shared family environment and environment outside the family ===
-Although parents treat their children differently, such differential treatment explains only a small amount of non-shared environmental influence. One suggestion is that children react differently to the same environment due to different genes. More likely influences may be the impact of peers and other experiences outside the family.<ref name="unknown"/><ref name="Plomin0103"/> For example, siblings grown up in the same household may have different friends and teachers and even contract different illnesses. This factor may be one of the reasons why IQ score correlations between siblings decreases as they get older.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schacter |first1=Daniel |first2=Daniel |last2=Gilbert |first3=Daniel |last3=Wegner |title=Psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=Worth Publishers |year=2010 |page=[https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha/page/408 408] |isbn=978-1-4292-3719-2}}</ref>
+Although parents treat their children differently, such differential treatment explains only a small amount of non-shared environmental influence. One suggestion is that children react differently to the same environment due to different genes. More likely influences may be the impact of peers and other experiences outside the family.<ref name="unknown"/><ref name="Plomin0103"/> For example, siblings grown up in the same household may have different friends and teachers and even contract different illnesses. This factor may be one of the reasons why IQ score correlations between siblings decreases as they get older.<ref>Schacter, Daniel; Gilbert, Daniel; Wegner, Daniel (2010). ''Psychology'' (2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. p. 408. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4292-3719-2</bdi>.</ref>
 === Malnutrition and diseases ===
-Certain single-gene [[metabolic disorder]]s can severely affect intelligence. [[Phenylketonuria]] is an example,<ref name="general">{{cite book|title=The general factor of intelligence|url=https://archive.org/details/generalfactorint00ster_484|url-access=limited|author1=Robert J. Sternberg|author2=Elena Grigorenko|pages=[https://archive.org/details/generalfactorint00ster_484/page/n272 260]–261|year=2002|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates|isbn=978-0-8058-3675-2}}{{page needed|date=April 2013}}</ref> with publications demonstrating the capacity of phenylketonuria to produce a reduction of 10 IQ points on average.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Griffiths PV|title=Wechsler subscale IQ and subtest profile in early treated phenylketonuria.|journal=Arch Dis Child|year=2000|volume=82|issue=3|pages=209–215|pmid=10685922|doi=10.1136/adc.82.3.209|pmc=1718264}}</ref> Meta-analyses have found that environmental factors, such as [[iodine deficiency]], can result in large reductions in average IQ; iodine deficiency has been shown to produce a reduction of 12.5 IQ points on average.<ref name="Iodine2005">{{cite journal|vauthors=Qian M, Wang D, Watkins WE, Gebski V, Yan YQ, Li M|display-authors=etal|title=The effects of iodine on intelligence in children: a meta-analysis of studies conducted in China.|journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition|year=2005|volume=14|issue=1|pages=32–42|pmid=15734706}}</ref>
+Certain single-gene [[metabolic disorder]]s can severely affect intelligence. [[Phenylketonuria]] is an example,<ref name="general">Robert J. Sternberg; Elena Grigorenko (2002). ''The general factor of intelligence''. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 260–261. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8058-3675-2</bdi>.</ref> with publications demonstrating the capacity of phenylketonuria to produce a reduction of 10 IQ points on average.<ref>Griffiths PV (2000). "Wechsler subscale IQ and subtest profile in early treated phenylketonuria". ''Arch Dis Child''. '''82''' (3): 209–215. doi:10.1136/adc.82.3.209. PMC 1718264. <nowiki>PMID 10685922</nowiki></ref> Meta-analyses have found that environmental factors, such as [[iodine deficiency]], can result in large reductions in average IQ; iodine deficiency has been shown to produce a reduction of 12.5 IQ points on average.<ref name="Iodine2005">Qian M, Wang D, Watkins WE, Gebski V, Yan YQ, Li M, et al. (2005). "The effects of iodine on intelligence in children: a meta-analysis of studies conducted in China". ''Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition''. '''14''' (1): 32–42. <nowiki>PMID 15734706</nowiki>.</ref>
 === Heritability and socioeconomic status ===
@@ Line 45: / Line 45: @@
 </blockquote>
-A study (1999) by Capron and Duyme of [[France|French]] children adopted between the ages of four and six examined the influence of [[socioeconomic status]] (SES). The children's IQs initially averaged 77, putting them near retardation. Most were abused or neglected as infants, then shunted from one foster home or institution to the next. Nine years later after adoption, when they were on average 14 years old, they retook the IQ tests, and all of them did better. The amount they improved was directly related to the adopting family's socioeconomic status. "Children adopted by farmers and laborers had average IQ scores of 85.5; those placed with [[Middle class|middle-class]] families had average scores of 92. The average IQ scores of youngsters placed in well-to-do homes climbed more than 20 points, to 98."<ref name=kirp>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/23/magazine/23wwln_idealab.html|title=After the Bell Curve|access-date=August 6, 2006|date=July 23, 2006|last=Kirp|first=David L.|author-link=David L. Kirp|work=[[New York Times Magazine]]|archive-date=December 31, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231115221/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/23/magazine/23wwln_idealab.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.96.15.8790 |title=How can we boost IQs of 'dull children'?: A late adoption study |year=1999 |last1=Duyme |first1=Michel |last2=Dumaret |first2=Annick-Camille |last3=Tomkiewicz |first3=Stanislaw |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=96 |issue=15 |pages=8790–4 |bibcode=1999PNAS...96.8790D |pmid=10411954 |pmc=17595 |jstor=48565|doi-access=free }}</ref>
+A study (1999) by Capron and Duyme of [[France|French]] children adopted between the ages of four and six examined the influence of [[socioeconomic status]] (SES). The children's IQs initially averaged 77, putting them near retardation. Most were abused or neglected as infants, then shunted from one foster home or institution to the next. Nine years later after adoption, when they were on average 14 years old, they retook the IQ tests, and all of them did better. The amount they improved was directly related to the adopting family's socioeconomic status. "Children adopted by farmers and laborers had average IQ scores of 85.5; those placed with [[Middle class|middle-class]] families had average scores of 92. The average IQ scores of youngsters placed in well-to-do homes climbed more than 20 points, to 98."<ref name="kirp">Kirp, David L. (July 23, 2006). "After the Bell Curve". ''New York Times Magazine''. Archived from the original on December 31, 2019. Retrieved August 6, 2006.</ref><ref>Duyme, Michel; Dumaret, Annick-Camille; Tomkiewicz, Stanislaw (1999). "How can we boost IQs of 'dull children'?: A late adoption study". ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences''. '''96''' (15): 8790–4. Bibcode:1999PNAS...96.8790D. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.15.8790. JSTOR 48565. PMC 17595. <nowiki>PMID 10411954</nowiki></ref>
-[[Michael Stoolmiller|Stoolmiller]] (1999) argued that the range of environments in previous adoption studies was restricted. Adopting families tend to be more similar on, for example, socio-economic status than the general population, which suggests a possible underestimation of the role of the shared family environment in previous studies. Corrections for range restriction to adoption studies indicated that socio-economic status could account for as much as 50% of the variance in IQ.<ref name="Stoolmiller99">{{cite journal |last1=Stoolmiller |first1=Mike |author-link=Michael Stoolmiller |title=Implications of the restricted range of family environments for estimates of heritability and nonshared environment in behavior-genetic adoption studies |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=125 |issue=4 |pages=392–409 |year=1999 |pmid=10414224 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.125.4.392}}</ref>
+[[Michael Stoolmiller|Stoolmiller]] (1999) argued that the range of environments in previous adoption studies was restricted. Adopting families tend to be more similar on, for example, socio-economic status than the general population, which suggests a possible underestimation of the role of the shared family environment in previous studies. Corrections for range restriction to adoption studies indicated that socio-economic status could account for as much as 50% of the variance in IQ.<ref name="Stoolmiller99">Stoolmiller, Mike (1999). "Implications of the restricted range of family environments for estimates of heritability and nonshared environment in behavior-genetic adoption studies". Psychological Bulletin. 125 (4): 392–409. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.4.392. <nowiki>PMID 10414224</nowiki></ref>
-On the other hand, the effect of this was examined by [[Matt McGue]] and colleagues (2007), who wrote that "restriction in range in parent disinhibitory psychopathology and family socio-economic status had no effect on adoptive-sibling correlations [in] IQ"<ref name="McGue">{{cite journal |last1=McGue |first1=Matt |last2=Keyes |first2=Margaret |last3=Sharma |first3=Anu |last4=Elkins |first4=Irene |last5=Legrand |first5=Lisa |last6=Johnson |first6=Wendy |last7=Iacono |first7=William G. |title=The Environments of Adopted and Non-adopted Youth: Evidence on Range Restriction From the Sibling Interaction and Behavior Study (SIBS) |journal=Behavior Genetics |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=l449–462 |year=2007 |doi=10.1007/s10519-007-9142-7 |pmid=17279339|s2cid=15575737 }}</ref>
+On the other hand, the effect of this was examined by [[Matt McGue]] and colleagues (2007), who wrote that "restriction in range in parent disinhibitory psychopathology and family socio-economic status had no effect on adoptive-sibling correlations [in] IQ"<ref name="McGue">McGue, Matt; Keyes, Margaret; Sharma, Anu; Elkins, Irene; Legrand, Lisa; Johnson, Wendy; Iacono, William G. (2007). "The Environments of Adopted and Non-adopted Youth: Evidence on Range Restriction From the Sibling Interaction and Behavior Study (SIBS)". Behavior Genetics. 37 (3): l449–462. doi:10.1007/s10519-007-9142-7. <nowiki>PMID 17279339</nowiki></ref>
-[[Eric Turkheimer|Turkheimer]] and colleagues (2003) argued that the proportions of IQ variance attributable to genes and environment vary with socioeconomic status. They found that in a study on seven-year-old twins, in impoverished families, 60% of the variance in early childhood IQ was accounted for by the shared family environment, and the contribution of genes is close to zero; in affluent families, the result is almost exactly the reverse.<ref name = "Turkheimer2003">{{cite journal |doi=10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1475.x |title=Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of iq in young children |year=2003 |last1=Turkheimer |first1=Eric |author-link=Eric Turkheimer | last2=Haley |first2=Andreana |last3=Waldron |first3=Mary |last4=d'Onofrio |first4=Brian |last5=Gottesman |first5=Irving I. |journal=Psychological Science |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=623–8 |pmid=14629696|s2cid=11265284 }}</ref>
+[[Eric Turkheimer|Turkheimer]] and colleagues (2003) argued that the proportions of IQ variance attributable to genes and environment vary with socioeconomic status. They found that in a study on seven-year-old twins, in impoverished families, 60% of the variance in early childhood IQ was accounted for by the shared family environment, and the contribution of genes is close to zero; in affluent families, the result is almost exactly the reverse.<ref name="Turkheimer2003">Turkheimer, Eric; Haley, Andreana; Waldron, Mary; d'Onofrio, Brian; Gottesman, Irving I. (2003). "Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of iq in young children". Psychological Science. 14 (6): 623–8. doi:10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1475.x. <nowiki>PMID 14629696</nowiki>. S2CID 11265284</ref>
-In contrast to Turkheimer (2003), a study by Nagoshi and Johnson (2005) concluded that the heritability of IQ did not vary as a function of parental socioeconomic status in the 949 families of Caucasian and 400 families of Japanese ancestry who took part in the Hawaii Family Study of Cognition.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0021932004007023 |title=Socioeconomic Status Does Not Moderate the Familiality of Cognitive Abilities in the Hawaii Family Study of Cognition |year=2004 |last1=Nagoshi |first1=Craig T. |last2=Johnson |first2=Ronald C. |journal=Journal of Biosocial Science |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=773–81 |pmid=16221325|s2cid=608104 }}</ref>
+In contrast to Turkheimer (2003), a study by Nagoshi and Johnson (2005) concluded that the heritability of IQ did not vary as a function of parental socioeconomic status in the 949 families of Caucasian and 400 families of Japanese ancestry who took part in the Hawaii Family Study of Cognition.<ref>Nagoshi, Craig T.; Johnson, Ronald C. (2004). "Socioeconomic Status Does Not Moderate the Familiality of Cognitive Abilities in the Hawaii Family Study of Cognition". Journal of Biosocial Science. 37 (6): 773–81. doi:10.1017/S0021932004007023. <nowiki>PMID 16221325</nowiki>. S2CID 608104</ref>
-Asbury and colleagues (2005) studied the effect of environmental risk factors on verbal and non-verbal ability in a nationally representative sample of 4-year-old British twins. There was not any statistically significant interaction for non-verbal ability, but the heritability of verbal ability was found to be ''higher'' in low-SES and high-risk environments.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Asbury |first1=K |last2=Wachs |first2=T |last3=Plomin |first3=R |title=Environmental moderators of genetic influence on verbal and nonverbal abilities in early childhood |journal=Intelligence |volume=33 |issue=6 |pages=643–61 |year=2005 |doi=10.1016/j.intell.2005.03.008}}</ref>
+Asbury and colleagues (2005) studied the effect of environmental risk factors on verbal and non-verbal ability in a nationally representative sample of 4-year-old British twins. There was not any statistically significant interaction for non-verbal ability, but the heritability of verbal ability was found to be ''higher'' in low-SES and high-risk environments.<ref>Asbury, K; Wachs, T; Plomin, R (2005). "Environmental moderators of genetic influence on verbal and nonverbal abilities in early childhood". Intelligence. 33 (6): 643–61. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2005.03.008</ref>
-[[Paige Harden|Harden]], Turkheimer, and [[John C. Loehlin|Loehlin]] (2007) investigated adolescents, most 17 years old, and found that, among higher income families, genetic influences accounted for approximately 55% of the variance in cognitive aptitude and shared environmental influences about 35%. Among lower income families, the proportions were in the reverse direction, 39% genetic and 45% shared environment."<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10519-006-9113-4 |title=Genotype by Environment Interaction in Adolescents' Cognitive Aptitude |year=2006 |last1=Harden |first1=K. Paige |author-link1=Paige Harden|last2=Turkheimer |first2=Eric |last3=Loehlin |first3=John C. |author-link3=John C. Loehlin |journal=Behavior Genetics |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=273–83 |pmid=16977503 |pmc=2903846}}</ref>
+[[Paige Harden|Harden]], Turkheimer, and [[John C. Loehlin|Loehlin]] (2007) investigated adolescents, most 17 years old, and found that, among higher income families, genetic influences accounted for approximately 55% of the variance in cognitive aptitude and shared environmental influences about 35%. Among lower income families, the proportions were in the reverse direction, 39% genetic and 45% shared environment."<ref name="ReferenceA">Harden, K. Paige; Turkheimer, Eric; Loehlin, John C. (2006). "Genotype by Environment Interaction in Adolescents' Cognitive Aptitude". Behavior Genetics. 37 (2): 273–83. doi:10.1007/s10519-006-9113-4</ref>
-In the course of a substantial review, [[J. Philippe Rushton|Rushton]] and [[Arthur Jensen|Jensen]] (2010) criticized the study of Capron and Duyme, arguing their choice of IQ test and selection of child and adolescent subjects were a poor choice because this gives a relatively less hereditable measure.<ref name=RJ2010/> The argument here rests on a strong form of [[Spearman's hypothesis]], that the hereditability of different kinds of IQ test can vary according to how closely they correlate to the [[general intelligence factor]] (''g''); both the empirical data and statistical methodology bearing on this question are matters of active controversy.<ref>Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2005). Problems with the method of correlated vectors. Intelligence, 33(4), 431–444.</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Dickens|first1=William T.|last2=Flynn|first2=James R.|date=2006|title=Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence from Standardization Samples|url=http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/dickens2006a.pdf|journal=Psychological Science|volume=17|issue=10|pages=913–920|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x|pmid=17100793|s2cid=6593169|access-date=2020-06-24|archive-date=2020-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105034218/http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/dickens2006a.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Flynn, J. R. (2010). The spectacles through which I see the race and IQ debate. Intelligence, 38(4), 363–366.</ref>
+In the course of a substantial review, [[J. Philippe Rushton|Rushton]] and [[Arthur Jensen|Jensen]] (2010) criticized the study of Capron and Duyme, arguing their choice of IQ test and selection of child and adolescent subjects were a poor choice because this gives a relatively less hereditable measure.<ref name=RJ2010/> The argument here rests on a strong form of [[Spearman's hypothesis]], that the hereditability of different kinds of IQ test can vary according to how closely they correlate to the [[general intelligence factor]] (''g''); both the empirical data and statistical methodology bearing on this question are matters of active controversy.<ref>Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2005). Problems with the method of correlated vectors. Intelligence, 33(4), 431–444.</ref><ref name=":3">Dickens, William T.; Flynn, James R. (2006). "Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence from Standardization Samples" (PDF). Psychological Science. 17 (10): 913–920. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x. <nowiki>PMID 17100793</nowiki>. S2CID 6593169. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-11-05. Retrieved 2020-06-24.</ref><ref>Flynn, J. R. (2010). The spectacles through which I see the race and IQ debate. Intelligence, 38(4), 363–366.</ref>
-A 2011 study by [[Elliot Tucker-Drob|Tucker-Drob]] and colleagues reported that at age 2, genes accounted for approximately 50% of the variation in mental ability for children being raised in high socioeconomic status families, but genes accounted for negligible variation in mental ability for children being raised in low socioeconomic status families. This gene–environment interaction was not apparent at age 10 months, suggesting that the effect emerges over the course of early development.<ref name="Tucker-Drob2011">{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0956797610392926 |title=Emergence of a Gene x Socioeconomic Status Interaction on Infant Mental Ability Between 10 Months and 2 Years |year=2010 |last1=Tucker-Drob |first1=E. M. | author-link1=Elliot Tucker-Drob |last2=Rhemtulla |first2=M. |last3=Harden |first3=K. P. |last4=Turkheimer |first4=E. |last5=Fask |first5=D. |journal=Psychological Science |volume=22 |pages=125–33 |pmid=21169524 |issue=1 |pmc=3532898}}</ref>
+A 2011 study by [[Elliot Tucker-Drob|Tucker-Drob]] and colleagues reported that at age 2, genes accounted for approximately 50% of the variation in mental ability for children being raised in high socioeconomic status families, but genes accounted for negligible variation in mental ability for children being raised in low socioeconomic status families. This gene–environment interaction was not apparent at age 10 months, suggesting that the effect emerges over the course of early development.<ref name="Tucker-Drob2011">Tucker-Drob, E. M.; Rhemtulla, M.; Harden, K. P.; Turkheimer, E.; Fask, D. (2010). "Emergence of a Gene x Socioeconomic Status Interaction on Infant Mental Ability Between 10 Months and 2 Years". Psychological Science. 22 (1): 125–33. doi:10.1177/0956797610392926. PMC 3532898. <nowiki>PMID 21169524</nowiki>.</ref>
-A 2012 study based on a representative sample of twins from the [[United Kingdom]], with longitudinal data on IQ from age two to age fourteen, did not find evidence for lower heritability in low-SES families. However, the study indicated that the effects of shared family environment on IQ were generally greater in low-SES families than in high-SES families, resulting in greater variance in IQ in low-SES families. The authors noted that previous research had produced inconsistent results on whether or not SES moderates the heritability of IQ. They suggested three explanations for the inconsistency. First, some studies may have lacked statistical power to detect interactions. Second, the age range investigated has varied between studies. Third, the effect of SES may vary in different demographics and different countries.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0030320 |title=Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Children's Intelligence (IQ): In a UK-Representative Sample SES Moderates the Environmental, Not Genetic, Effect on IQ |year=2012 |editor1-last=Scott |editor1-first=James G |last1=Hanscombe |first1=Ken B. |last2=Trzaskowski |first2=Maciej |last3=Haworth |first3=Claire M. A. |last4=Davis |first4=Oliver S. P. |last5=Dale |first5=Philip S. |last6=Plomin |first6=Robert |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=e30320 |pmid=22312423 |pmc=3270016|bibcode = 2012PLoSO...730320H |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+A 2012 study based on a representative sample of twins from the [[United Kingdom]], with longitudinal data on IQ from age two to age fourteen, did not find evidence for lower heritability in low-SES families. However, the study indicated that the effects of shared family environment on IQ were generally greater in low-SES families than in high-SES families, resulting in greater variance in IQ in low-SES families. The authors noted that previous research had produced inconsistent results on whether or not SES moderates the heritability of IQ. They suggested three explanations for the inconsistency. First, some studies may have lacked statistical power to detect interactions. Second, the age range investigated has varied between studies. Third, the effect of SES may vary in different demographics and different countries.<ref>Hanscombe, Ken B.; Trzaskowski, Maciej; Haworth, Claire M. A.; Davis, Oliver S. P.; Dale, Philip S.; Plomin, Robert (2012). Scott, James G (ed.). "Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Children's Intelligence (IQ): In a UK-Representative Sample SES Moderates the Environmental, Not Genetic, Effect on IQ". PLOS ONE. 7 (2): e30320. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...730320H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030320. PMC 3270016. <nowiki>PMID 22312423</nowiki>.</ref>
-A 2017 King's College London study suggests that genes account for nearly 50 per cent of the differences between whether children are socially mobile or not.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ayorech|first1=Ziada|title=Genetic Influence on Intergenerational Educational Attainment|journal=Psychological Science|volume=28|issue=9|pages=1302–1310|date=July 17, 2017|doi=10.1177/0956797617707270|pmid=28715641|pmc=5595239}}</ref>
+A 2017 King's College London study suggests that genes account for nearly 50 per cent of the differences between whether children are socially mobile or not.<ref>Ayorech, Ziada (July 17, 2017). "Genetic Influence on Intergenerational Educational Attainment". ''Psychological Science''. '''28''' (9): 1302–1310. doi:10.1177/0956797617707270. PMC 5595239. <nowiki>PMID 28715641</nowiki></ref>
-=== Maternal (fetal) environment ===
-A [[meta-analysis]] by Devlin and colleagues (1997) of 212 previous studies evaluated an alternative model for environmental influence and found that it fits the data better than the 'family-environments' model commonly used. The shared maternal ([[fetal]]) environment effects, often assumed to be negligible, account for 20% of covariance between twins and 5% between siblings, and the effects of genes are correspondingly reduced, with two measures of heritability being less than 50%. They argue that the shared maternal environment may explain the striking correlation between the IQs of twins, especially those of adult twins that were reared apart.<ref name="devlin">Devlin, B.; Daniels, Michael; Roeder, Kathryn (1997). "The heritability of IQ". ''Nature''. '''388''' (6641): 468–71. Bibcode:1997Natur.388..468D. doi:10.1038/41319. <nowiki>PMID 9242404</nowiki>. S2CID 4313884</ref> IQ heritability increases during early childhood, but whether it stabilizes thereafter remains unclear.<ref name="devlin" />{{Oldfact|date=November 2015}} These results have two implications: a new model may be required regarding the influence of genes and environment on cognitive function; and interventions aimed at improving the prenatal environment could lead to a significant boost in the population's IQ.<ref name="devlin" />
-Bouchard and McGue reviewed the literature in 2003, arguing that Devlin's conclusions about the magnitude of heritability is not substantially different from previous reports and that their conclusions regarding prenatal effects stands in contradiction to many previous reports.<ref name="pmid12486697">Bouchard, Thomas J.; McGue, Matt (January 2003). "Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences". ''Journal of Neurobiology''. '''54''' (1): 4–45. doi:10.1002/neu.10160. <nowiki>PMID 12486697</nowiki></ref> They write that: <blockquote>Chipuer et al. and Loehlin conclude that the postnatal rather than the prenatal environment is most important. The Devlin et al. (1997a) conclusion that the prenatal environment contributes to twin IQ similarity is especially remarkable given the existence of an extensive empirical literature on prenatal effects. Price (1950), in a comprehensive review published over 50 years ago, argued that almost all MZ twin prenatal effects produced differences rather than similarities. As of 1950 the literature on the topic was so large that the entire bibliography was not published. It was finally published in 1978 with an additional 260 references. At that time Price reiterated his earlier conclusion (Price, 1978). Research subsequent to the 1978 review largely reinforces Price's hypothesis (Bryan, 1993; Macdonald et al., 1993; Hall and Lopez-Rangel, 1996; see also Martin et al., 1997, box 2; Machin, 1996).<ref name="pmid12486697"/></blockquote>
-=== Dickens and Flynn model ===
-Dickens and Flynn (2001) argued that the "heritability" figure includes both a direct effect of the [[genotype]] on IQ and also indirect effects where the genotype changes the environment, in turn affecting IQ. That is, those with a higher IQ tend to seek out stimulating environments that further increase IQ. The direct effect can initially have been very small but [[feedback]] loops can create large differences in IQ. In their model an environmental stimulus can have a very large effect on IQ, even in adults, but this effect also decays over time unless the stimulus continues. This model could be adapted to include possible factors, like nutrition in early childhood, that may cause permanent effects.
-The [[Flynn effect]] is the increase in average intelligence test scores by about 0.3% annually, resulting in the average person today scoring 15 points higher in IQ compared to the generation 50 years ago.<ref name = Schacter409>{{cite book |last1=Schacter |first1=Daniel |first2=Daniel |last2=Gilbert |first3=Daniel |last3=Wegner |title=Psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=Worth Publishers |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha/page/409 409–10] |isbn=978-1-4292-3719-2}}</ref> This effect can be explained by a generally more stimulating environment for all people. The authors suggest that programs aiming to increase IQ would be most likely to produce long-term IQ gains if they taught children how to replicate outside the program the kinds of cognitively demanding experiences that produce IQ gains while they are in the program and motivate them to persist in that replication long after they have left the program.<ref name="DickensFlynn2001">{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.108.2.346 |title=Heritability estimates versus large environmental effects: The IQ paradox resolved |year=2001 |last1=Dickens |first1=William T. |last2=Flynn |first2=James R. |journal=Psychological Review |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=346–69 |pmid=11381833|citeseerx=10.1.1.139.2436 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dickens |first1=William T. |last2=Flynn |first2=James R. |title=The IQ paradox is still resolved: Reply to Loehlin (2002) and Rowe and Rodgers (2002). |journal=Psychological Review |date=2002 |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=764–771 |doi=10.1037/0033-295x.109.4.764 }}</ref>
-Most of the improvements have allowed for better abstract reasoning, spatial relations, and comprehension. Some scientists have suggested that such enhancements are due to better nutrition, better parenting and schooling, as well as exclusion of the least intelligent people from reproduction. However, Flynn and a group of other scientists share the viewpoint that modern life implies solving many abstract problems which leads to a rise in their IQ scores.<ref name = Schacter409/>
-=== Influence of genes on IQ stability ===
-Recent research has illuminated genetic factors underlying IQ stability and change. [[Genome-wide association studies]] have demonstrated that the genes involved in intelligence remain fairly stable over time.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/mp.2012.191 |title=DNA evidence for strong genetic stability and increasing heritability of intelligence from age 7 to 12 |year=2013 |last1=Trzaskowski |first1=M |last2=Yang |first2=J |last3=Visscher |first3=P M |last4=Plomin |first4=R |journal=Molecular Psychiatry |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=380–384 |pmid=23358157 |pmc=3932402}}</ref> Specifically, in terms of IQ stability, "genetic factors mediated phenotypic stability throughout this entire period [age 0 to 16], whereas most age-to-age instability appeared to be due to non-shared environmental influences".<ref name="Plomin 2004 805–812">{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.40.5.805 |title=Genetic and Environmental Contributions to General Cognitive Ability Through the First 16 Years of Life |year=2004 |last1=Petrill |first1=Stephen A. |last2=Lipton |first2=Paul A. |last3=Hewitt |first3=John K. |last4=Plomin |first4=Robert |last5=Cherny |first5=Stacey S. |last6=Corley |first6=Robin |last7=Defries |first7=John C. |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=805–12 |pmid=15355167 |pmc=3710702}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02425.x |title=Genes Determine Stability and the Environment Determines Change in Cognitive Ability During 35 Years of Adulthood |year=2009 |last1=Lyons |first1=Michael J. |last2=York |first2=Timothy P. |last3=Franz |first3=Carol E. |last4=Grant |first4=Michael D. |last5=Eaves |first5=Lindon J. |last6=Jacobson |first6=Kristen C. |last7=Schaie |first7=K. Warner |last8=Panizzon |first8=Matthew S. |last9=Boake |first9=Corwin |last10=Xian |first10=Hong |last11=Toomey |first11=Rosemary |last12=Eisen |first12=Seth A. |last13=Kremen |first13=William S. |journal=Psychological Science |volume=20 |issue=9 |pages=1146–52 |pmid=19686293 |pmc=2753423|display-authors=8 }}</ref> These findings have been replicated extensively and observed in the United Kingdom,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1540-5834.2007.00453.x |title=The genetic and environmental origins of learning abilities and disabilities in the early school years |year=2007 |journal=Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=vii, 1–144 |pmid=17995572 |last1=Kovas |first1=Y |last2=Haworth |first2=CM |last3=Dale |first3=PS |last4=Plomin |first4=R |pmc=2784897}}</ref> the United States,<ref name=Loehlin1989>{{cite journal | jstor = 1131039 | title = Modeling IQ Change: Evidence from the Texas Adoption Project | pmid = 2758892 | doi = 10.2307/1131039 | volume = 60 | number = 4 | year = 1989 | journal = Child Development | pages = 993–1004 | first1 = JC | last1 = Loehlin  | first2 = JM  | last2 = Horn  | first3 = L | last3 = Willerman  }}</ref><ref name="Plomin 2004 805–812"/> and the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1375/twin.14.2.119 |title=Heritability of Verbal and Performance Intelligence in a Pediatric Longitudinal Sample |year=2012 |last1=Van Soelen |first1=Inge L.C. |last2=Brouwer |first2=Rachel M. |last3=Leeuwen |first3=Marieke van |last4=Kahn |first4=René S. |last5=Hulshoff Pol |first5=Hilleke E. |last6=Boomsma |first6=Dorret I. |journal=Twin Research and Human Genetics |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=119–28 |pmid=21425893|citeseerx=10.1.1.204.6966 |s2cid=16692953 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=12211623 |year=2002 |last1=Bartels |first1=M |last2=Rietveld |first2=MJ |last3=Van Baal |first3=GC |last4=Boomsma |first4=DI |title=Genetic and environmental influences on the development of intelligence |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=237–49 |journal=Behavior Genetics |doi=10.1023/A:1019772628912 |s2cid=16547899 |url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/1e1439fb-ca50-4920-9a5d-e475be2d84b6 |access-date=2018-11-20 |archive-date=2022-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304002705/https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/genetic-and-environmental-influences-on-the-development-of-intell |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.lindif.2007.05.005 |title=Longitudinal genetic study of verbal and nonverbal IQ from early childhood to young adulthood |year=2007 |last1=Hoekstra |first1=Rosa A. |last2=Bartels |first2=Meike |last3=Boomsma |first3=Dorret I. |journal=Learning and Individual Differences |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=97–114 |url=http://www.tweelingenregister.org/nederlands/verslaggeving/NTR-publicaties_2007/Hoekstra_LID_2007.pdf |access-date=2018-11-20 |archive-date=2018-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721094547/http://www.tweelingenregister.org/nederlands/verslaggeving/NTR-publicaties_2007/Hoekstra_LID_2007.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=14574137 |year=2003 |last1=Rietveld |first1=MJ |last2=Dolan |first2=CV |last3=Van Baal |first3=GC |last4=Boomsma |first4=DI |title=A twin study of differentiation of cognitive abilities in childhood |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=367–81 |journal=Behavior Genetics |doi=10.1023/A:1025388908177 |s2cid=8446452 |url=https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/1891982/Rietveld%20Behavior%20Genetics%2033(4)%202003%20u.pdf |access-date=2019-02-11 |archive-date=2021-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225092341/https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/1891982/Rietveld%20Behavior%20Genetics%2033(4)%202003%20u.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, researchers have shown that naturalistic changes in IQ occur in individuals at variable times.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=8509490 |year=1993 |last1=Moffitt |first1=TE |last2=Caspi |first2=A |last3=Harkness |first3=AR |last4=Silva |first4=PA |title=The natural history of change in intellectual performance: Who changes? How much? Is it meaningful? |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=455–506 |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb01031.x}}</ref>
-=== Influence of parents genes that are not inherited ===
-Kong<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kong |first1=Augustine |last2=Thorleifsson |first2=Gudmar |last3=Frigge |first3=Michael L. |last4=Vilhjalmsson |first4=Bjarni J. |last5=Young |first5=Alexander I. |last6=Thorgeirsson |first6=Thorgeir E. |last7=Benonisdottir |first7=Stefania |last8=Oddsson |first8=Asmundur |last9=Halldorsson |first9=Bjarni V. |last10=Masson |first10=Gisli |last11=Gudbjartsson |first11=Daniel F. |last12=Helgason |first12=Agnar |last13=Bjornsdottir |first13=Gyda |last14=Thorsteinsdottir |first14=Unnur |last15=Stefansson |first15=Kari |title=The nature of nurture: Effects of parental genotypes |journal=Science |date=25 January 2018 |volume=359 |issue=6374 |pages=424–428 |doi=10.1126/science.aan6877 |pmid=29371463 |bibcode=2018Sci...359..424K |doi-access=free }}</ref> reports that, "Nurture has a genetic component, i.e. alleles in the parents affect the parents' phenotypes and through that influence the outcomes of the child." These results were obtained through a meta-analysis of [[educational attainment]] and [[Polygene|polygenic]] scores of non-transmitted alleles. Although the study deals with educational attainment and not IQ, these two are strongly linked.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Deary |first1=Ian J. |last2=Strand |first2=Steve |last3=Smith |first3=Pauline |last4=Fernandes |first4=Cres |title=Intelligence and educational achievement |journal=Intelligence |date=January 2007 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=13–21 |doi=10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.001 }}</ref>
-== Spatial ability component of IQ ==
-Spatial ability has been shown to be unifactorial (a single score accounts well for all spatial abilities), and is 69% heritable in a sample of 1,367 pairs of twins from the ages 19 through 21.<ref name=RimfeldKaili>{{cite journal |last1=Rimfeld |first1=Kaili |last2=Shakeshaft |first2=Nicholas G. |last3=Malanchini |first3=Margherita |last4=Rodic |first4=Maja |last5=Selzam |first5=Saskia |last6=Schofield |first6=Kerry |last7=Dale |first7=Philip S. |last8=Kovas |first8=Yulia |last9=Plomin |first9=Robert |title=Phenotypic and genetic evidence for a unifactorial structure of spatial abilities |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=2017 |volume=114 |issue=10 |pages=2777–2782 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1607883114 |pmid=28223478 |pmc=5347574 |jstor=26480105 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114.2777R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Further only 8% of spatial ability can be accounted for by shared environmental factors like school and family.<ref name=RimfeldKaili/> Of the genetically determined portion of spatial ability, 24% is shared with verbal ability (general intelligence) and 43% was specific to spatial ability alone.<ref name=RimfeldKaili/>
-== Molecular genetic investigations ==
-A 2009 review article identified over 50 [[genetic polymorphism]]s that have been reported to be associated with cognitive ability in various studies, but noted that the discovery of small effect sizes and lack of replication have characterized this research so far.<ref name="Payton">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11065-009-9116-z |title=The Impact of Genetic Research on our Understanding of Normal Cognitive Ageing: 1995 to 2009 |year=2009 |last1=Payton |first1=Antony |journal=Neuropsychology Review |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=451–77 |pmid=19768548|s2cid=27197807 }}</ref> Another study attempted to replicate 12 reported associations between specific genetic variants and general cognitive ability in three large datasets, but found that only one of the genotypes was significantly associated with general intelligence in one of the samples, a result expected by chance alone. The authors concluded that most reported genetic associations with general intelligence are probably [[false positive]]s brought about by inadequate sample sizes.<ref name="Chabris" /> Arguing that common genetic variants explain much of the variation in general intelligence, they suggested that the effects of individual variants are so small that very large samples are required to reliably detect them.<ref name="Chabris">{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0956797611435528 |title=Most Reported Genetic Associations with General Intelligence Are Probably False Positives |year=2012 |last1=Chabris |first1=C. F. |last2=Hebert |first2=B. M. |last3=Benjamin |first3=D. J. |last4=Beauchamp |first4=J. |last5=Cesarini |first5=D. |last6=Van Der Loos |first6=M. |last7=Johannesson |first7=M. |last8=Magnusson |first8=P. K. E. |last9=Lichtenstein |first9=P. |last10=Atwood |first10=C. S. |last11=Freese |first11=J. |last12=Hauser |first12=T. S. |last13=Hauser |first13=R. M. |last14=Christakis |first14=N. |last15=Laibson |first15=D. |journal=Psychological Science |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=1314–23 |pmid=23012269|pmc=3498585 }}</ref> Genetic diversity within individuals is heavily correlated with IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1038/nature14618| pmid=26131930|pmc = 4516141| title=Directional dominance on stature and cognition in&nbsp;diverse human populations| journal=Nature| volume=523| issue=7561| pages=459–462| year=2015| last1=Joshi| first1=Peter K.| last2=Esko| first2=Tonu| last3=Mattsson| first3=Hannele| last4=Eklund| first4=Niina| last5=Gandin| first5=Ilaria| last6=Nutile| first6=Teresa| last7=Jackson| first7=Anne U.| last8=Schurmann| first8=Claudia| last9=Smith| first9=Albert V.| last10=Zhang| first10=Weihua| last11=Okada| first11=Yukinori| last12=Stančáková| first12=Alena| last13=Faul| first13=Jessica D.| last14=Zhao| first14=Wei| last15=Bartz| first15=Traci M.| last16=Concas| first16=Maria Pina| last17=Franceschini| first17=Nora| last18=Enroth| first18=Stefan| last19=Vitart| first19=Veronique| last20=Trompet| first20=Stella| last21=Guo| first21=Xiuqing| last22=Chasman| first22=Daniel I.| last23=O'Connel| first23=Jeffrey R.| last24=Corre| first24=Tanguy| last25=Nongmaithem| first25=Suraj S.| last26=Chen| first26=Yuning| last27=Mangino| first27=Massimo| last28=Ruggiero| first28=Daniela| last29=Traglia| first29=Michela| last30=Farmaki| first30=Aliki-Eleni| bibcode=2015Natur.523..459.| display-authors=29}}</ref>
-A novel molecular genetic method for estimating heritability calculates the overall genetic similarity (as indexed by the cumulative effects of all genotyped [[single nucleotide polymorphism]]s) between all pairs of individuals in a sample of unrelated individuals and then correlates this genetic similarity with phenotypic similarity across all the pairs. A study using this method estimated that the lower bounds for the narrow-sense heritability of crystallized and fluid intelligence are 40% and 51%, respectively. A replication study in an independent sample confirmed these results, reporting a heritability estimate of 47%.<ref name=Davies2011/> These findings are compatible with the view that a large number of genes, each with only a small effect, contribute to differences in intelligence.<ref name="Chabris"/>
-== Correlations between IQ and degree of genetic relatedness ==
-The relative influence of genetics and environment for a trait can be calculated by measuring how strongly traits [[covary]] in people of a given genetic (unrelated, siblings, fraternal twins, or identical twins) and environmental (reared in the same family or not) relationship. One method is to consider [[identical twin]]s reared apart, with any similarities that exist between such twin pairs attributed to genotype. In terms of [[correlation]] statistics, this means that theoretically the correlation of tests scores between [[monozygotic]] twins would be 1.00 if genetics alone accounted for variation in IQ scores; likewise, siblings and [[dizygotic]] twins share on average half [[allele]]s and the correlation of their scores would be 0.50 if IQ were affected by genes alone (or greater if there is a positive correlation between the IQs of spouses in the parental generation).  Practically, however, the [[upper bound]] of these correlations are given by the [[Reliability (statistics)|reliability]] of the test, which is 0.90 to 0.95 for typical IQ tests.<ref>Jensen, Arthur (1998). The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers{{page needed|date=April 2013}}</ref>
-If there is [[biological inheritance]] of IQ, then the relatives of a person with a high IQ should exhibit a comparably high IQ with a much higher probability than the general population. In 1982, Bouchard and McGue reviewed such correlations reported in 111 original studies in the United States. The mean correlation of IQ scores between monozygotic twins was 0.86, between siblings 0.47, between half-siblings 0.31, and between cousins 0.15.<ref name="pmid7195071">{{cite journal |bibcode=1981Sci...212.1055B |title=Familial Studies of Intelligence: A Review |last1=Bouchard |first1=Thomas J. |last2=McGue |first2=Matthew |volume=212 |year=1981 |pages=1055–9 |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.7195071 |pmid=7195071 |issue=4498}}</ref>
-The 2006 edition of ''Assessing adolescent and adult intelligence'' by [[Alan S. Kaufman]] and Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger reports correlations of 0.86 for identical twins raised together compared to 0.76 for those raised apart and 0.47 for siblings.<ref name="KaufmanLichtenberger2006">{{cite book |title=Assessing Adolescent and Adult Intelligence |last1=Kaufman |first1=Alan S. |last2=Lichtenberger |first2=Elizabeth |author-link1=Alan S. Kaufman |edition=3rd |year=2006 |publisher=Wiley |location=Hoboken (NJ) |isbn=978-0-471-73553-3}}{{page needed|date=April 2013}}</ref> These numbers are not necessarily static. When comparing pre-1963 to late 1970s data, researches DeFries and Plomin found that the IQ correlation between parent and child living together fell significantly, from 0.50 to 0.35. The opposite occurred for fraternal twins.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0160-2896(80)90003-3 |title=Genetics and intelligence: Recent data |year=1980 |last1=Plomin |first1=Robert |last2=Defries |first2=J.C. |journal=Intelligence |volume=4 |pages=15–24}}</ref>
-Every one of these studies presented next contains estimates of only two of the three factors which are relevant. The three factors are G, E, and GxE. Since there is no possibility of studying equal environments in a manner comparable to using identical twins for equal genetics, the GxE factor can not be isolated. Thus the estimates are actually of G+GxE and E. Although this may seem like nonsense, it is justified by the unstated assumption that GxE=0. It is also the case that the values shown below are r correlations and not r(squared), proportions of variance. Numbers less than one are smaller when squared. The next to last number in the list below refers to less than 5% shared variance between a parent and child living apart.
-Another summary:
-* Same person (tested twice over time) .85 or above<ref name="Hunt">{{cite book|first = Earl|last = Hunt| title=Human Intelligence |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref>
-* Identical twins—Reared together .86
-* Identical twins—Reared apart .76
-* Fraternal twins—Reared together .55
-* Fraternal twins—Reared apart .35
-* Biological siblings—Reared together .47
-* Biological siblings—Reared apart .24
-* Biological siblings—Reared together—Adults .24<ref name="Biological siblings IQ">{{cite book |last1=Brody |first1=Nathan |title=Intelligence |date=1992 |publisher=Gulf |isbn=978-0-12-134251-7 |pages=145–146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Au2KHXQs2JUC&pg=PA145 |quote=These correlations should be compared to the correlation of .24 for biologically related siblings reared in these families. |access-date=2020-08-31 |archive-date=2021-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009175056/https://books.google.com/books?id=Au2KHXQs2JUC&pg=PA145 |url-status=live }}</ref>
-* Unrelated children—Reared together—Children .28
-* Unrelated children—Reared together—Adults .04
-* Cousins .15
-* Parent-child—Living together .42
-* Parent-child—Living apart .22
-* Adoptive parent–child—Living together .19<ref name=Kaufman2009>{{cite book |title=IQ Testing 101 |url=https://archive.org/details/iqtestingpsych00phdd |url-access=limited |author=Alan S. Kaufman |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-8261-0629-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/iqtestingpsych00phdd/page/n193 179]–183}}</ref>
 == Between-group heritability ==

Heritability: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 04:37, 1 February 2024

Contents

Heritability and caveats

Caveats

Estimates

Shared family environment

Non-shared family environment and environment outside the family

Malnutrition and diseases

Heritability and socioeconomic status

Between-group heritability

Notes and references

Works cited

Further reading

Books

Review articles

Online articles

External links

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