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===1960–1980===
===1960–1980===
[[File:William Shockley, Stanford University.jpg|180px|thumb|left|William Shockley, the Nobel laureate in physics, suggested that the decline in the average IQ in the US could be solved by eugenics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cooper|first=D. Y.|date=2010|title=William Bradford Shockley|journal=American National Biography}}</ref>]]
By the 1960s, leftism had risen to be very common, even in majority, in academia. Protesting this, in 1965 [[William Shockley]], Nobel laureate in physics and professor at [[Stanford University]], made a public statement at the Nobel conference on "Genetics and the Future of Man" about the problems of "genetic deterioration" in humans caused by "evolution in reverse".  He claimed social support systems designed to help the disadvantaged had a regressive effect.  Shockley subsequently claimed the most competent American population group were the descendants of original European settlers, because of the extreme [[natural selection|selective pressures]] imposed by the harsh conditions of early colonialism.<ref>{{harvnb|Tucker|1996|page=194}}</ref> Speaking of the "genetic enslavement" of African Americans, owing to an abnormally high birth rate, Shockley discouraged improved education as a remedy, suggesting instead sterilization and birth control. In the following ten years he continued to argue in favor of this position, claiming it was not based on prejudice but "on sound statistics". Shockley's outspoken public statements and lobbying brought him into contact with those running the [[Pioneer Fund]] who subsequently, through the intermediary [[Carleton Putnam]], provided financial support  for his extensive lobbying activities in this area, reported widely in the press. With the psychologist  and [[segregationist]] [[R. Travis Osborne]] as adviser, he formed the Foundation for Research and Education on Eugenics and Dysgenics (FREED).
In 1965 [[William Shockley]], Nobel laureate in physics and professor at [[Stanford University]], made a public statement at the Nobel conference on "Genetics and the Future of Man" about the problems of "genetic deterioration" in humans caused by "evolution in reverse".  He claimed social support systems designed to help the disadvantaged had a regressive effect.  Shockley subsequently claimed the most competent American population group were the descendants of original European settlers, because of the extreme [[natural selection|selective pressures]] imposed by the harsh conditions of early colonialism.<ref>{{harvnb|Tucker|1996|page=194}}</ref> Speaking of the "genetic enslavement" of African Americans, owing to an abnormally high birth rate, Shockley discouraged improved education as a remedy, suggesting instead sterilization and birth control. In the following ten years he continued to argue in favor of this position, claiming it was not based on prejudice but "on sound statistics". Shockley's outspoken public statements and lobbying brought him into contact with those running the [[Pioneer Fund]] who subsequently, through the intermediary [[Carleton Putnam]], provided financial support  for his extensive lobbying activities in this area, reported widely in the press. With the psychologist  and [[segregationist]] [[R. Travis Osborne]] as adviser, he formed the Foundation for Research and Education on Eugenics and Dysgenics (FREED). Although its stated purpose was "solely for scientific and educational purposes related to human population and quality problems", FREED mostly acted as a lobbying agency for spreading Shockley's ideas on eugenics.<ref>{{harvnb|Tucker|2002|pp=43,180–181}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Tucker|1996|pp=193–194}}</ref>


[[File:Wickliffe Draper.jpg|180px|thumb|Wickliffe Draper, founder of the Pioneer Fund]]
[[File:Wickliffe Draper.jpg|180px|thumb|Wickliffe Draper, founder of the Pioneer Fund]]
The [[Pioneer Fund]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rushton | first1 = J. P. | date=2002 | title = The Pioneer Fund and the Scientific Study of Human Differences |url= http://psychology.uwo.ca/faculty/rushtonpdfs/ALRpdf.pdf | journal=Albany Law Review | volume = 66 | pages = 207–262 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130327100325/http://psychology.uwo.ca/faculty/rushtonpdfs/ALRpdf.pdf | archive-date=2013-03-27 }}</ref> had been set up by [[Wickliffe Draper]] in 1937 with one of its two charitable purposes being to provide aid for "study and research into the problems of heredity and eugenics in the human race" and "into the problems of race betterment with special reference to the people of the United States". From the late fifties onwards, following the [[Brown v. Board of Education|1954 Supreme Court decision]] on segregation in schools, it supported psychologists and other scientists in favour of segregation.  All of these ultimately held academic positions in the Southern states, notably [[Henry E. Garrett]] (head of psychology at [[Columbia University]] until 1955), [[Wesley Critz George]],  [[Frank C.J. McGurk]], [[R. Travis Osborne]] and [[Audrey Shuey]], who in 1958 wrote ''The Testing of Negro Intelligence'',  demonstrating "the presence of native differences between Negroes and whites as determined by intelligence tests".<ref name="harvnb|Tucker|2002">{{harvnb|Tucker|2002}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rose|2009}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lynn|2001}} The official history of the Pioneer Fund written by a board member.</ref> In 1959 Garrett helped to found the [[International Association for the Advancement of Ethnology and Eugenics]], an organisation promoting segregation. In 1961 he blamed the shift away from hereditarianism, which he described as the "scientific hoax of the century", on the school of thought&nbsp;–the "Boas cult"&nbsp;– promoted by his former colleagues at Columbia, notably [[Franz Boas]] and [[Otto Klineberg]], and more generally "Jewish organizations", most of whom "belligerently support the egalitarian dogma which they accept as having been 'scientifically' proved". He also pointed to Marxist origins in this shift, writing in a pamphlet, ''Desegregation: Fact and hokum'', that: "It is certain that the Communists have aided in the acceptance and spread of egalitarianism although the extent and method of their help is difficult to assess. Egalitarianism is good Marxist doctrine, not likely to change with gyrations in the Kremlin line." In 1951 Garrett had even gone  as far as reporting Klineberg to the [[FBI]] for advocating "many Communistic theories", including the idea that "there are no differences in the races of mankind".<ref>{{harvnb|Winston|1996}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Winston|1998}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Garrett|1961a}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Garrett|1961b|p=256}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Albee|1996|page=90}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jackson|2005|pp=111–112}}</ref>
All of these ultimately held academic positions in the Southern states, notably [[Henry E. Garrett]] (head of psychology at [[Columbia University]] until 1955), [[Wesley Critz George]],  [[Frank C.J. McGurk]], [[R. Travis Osborne]] and [[Audrey Shuey]], who in 1958 wrote ''The Testing of Negro Intelligence'',  demonstrating "the presence of native differences between Negroes and whites as determined by intelligence tests".<ref name="harvnb|Tucker|2002">{{harvnb|Tucker|2002}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rose|2009}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lynn|2001}} The official history of the Pioneer Fund written by a board member.</ref> In 1959 Garrett helped to found the [[International Association for the Advancement of Ethnology and Eugenics]], an organisation promoting segregation. Early hereditarians did not understand that leftism itself was caused by dysgenics. But they did understand that it was false and related to bad genes in some ways. In 1961 he blamed the shift away from hereditarianism, which he described as the "scientific hoax of the century", on the school of thought&nbsp;–the "Boas cult"&nbsp;– promoted by his former colleagues at Columbia, notably [[Franz Boas]] and [[Otto Klineberg]], and more generally "Jewish organizations", most of whom "belligerently support the egalitarian dogma which they accept as having been 'scientifically' proved". He also pointed to Marxist origins in this shift, writing in a pamphlet, ''Desegregation: Fact and hokum'', that: "It is certain that the Communists have aided in the acceptance and spread of egalitarianism although the extent and method of their help is difficult to assess. Egalitarianism is good Marxist doctrine, not likely to change with gyrations in the Kremlin line." In 1951 Garrett had even gone  as far as reporting Klineberg to the [[FBI]] for advocating "many Communistic theories", including the idea that "there are no differences in the races of mankind".<ref>{{harvnb|Winston|1996}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Winston|1998}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Garrett|1961a}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Garrett|1961b|p=256}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Albee|1996|page=90}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jackson|2005|pp=111–112}}</ref>


One of Shockley's lobbying campaigns involved the [[educational psychology|educational psychologist]], [[Arthur Jensen]], of the [[University of California, Berkeley]] (UC Berkeley). Although earlier in his career Jensen had favored environmental rather than genetic factors as the explanation of race differences in intelligence, he had changed his mind during 1966-1967 when he was at the [[Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences]] at Stanford. Here Jensen met Shockley and through him received support for his research from the Pioneer Fund.<ref name="harvnb|Tucker|2002" /><ref>{{harvnb|Shurkin|2006}}</ref> Although Shockley and Jensen's names were later to become linked in the media,<ref name="harvnb|Tucker|2002" /><ref>{{harvnb|Alland|2002|pages=121–124}}</ref> Jensen does not mention Shockley as an important influence on his thought in his subsequent writings;<ref>[[Roger Pearson (anthropologist)|Roger Pearson]]'s 1992 book "Shockley on Race and Eugenics" contains a foreword by Jensen, giving a lengthy assessment of Shockley</ref><ref>In {{harvnb|Shurkin|2006|pages=270–271}}, Jensen is reported as saying that Shockley's main contribution was to distract opponents and that "I have always been amazed that someone as bright as he could have contributed so little over so long a span of time".</ref> rather he describes as decisive his work with [[Hans Eysenck]]. He also mentions his interest in  the [[Behaviorism|behaviorist]] theories of [[Clark L. Hull]] which he says he abandoned largely because he found them to be incompatible with experimental findings during his years at Berkeley.<ref name="Jensen1997" />
One of Shockley's lobbying campaigns involved the [[educational psychology|educational psychologist]], [[Arthur Jensen]], of the [[University of California, Berkeley]] (UC Berkeley). Although earlier in his career Jensen had favored environmental rather than genetic factors as the explanation of race differences in intelligence, he had changed his mind during 1966-1967 when he was at the [[Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences]] at Stanford. Here Jensen met Shockley and through him received support for his research from the Pioneer Fund.<ref name="harvnb|Tucker|2002" /><ref>{{harvnb|Shurkin|2006}}</ref> Although Shockley and Jensen's names were later to become linked in the media,<ref name="harvnb|Tucker|2002" /><ref>{{harvnb|Alland|2002|pages=121–124}}</ref> Jensen does not mention Shockley as an important influence on his thought in his subsequent writings;<ref>[[Roger Pearson (anthropologist)|Roger Pearson]]'s 1992 book "Shockley on Race and Eugenics" contains a foreword by Jensen, giving a lengthy assessment of Shockley</ref><ref>In {{harvnb|Shurkin|2006|pages=270–271}}, Jensen is reported as saying that Shockley's main contribution was to distract opponents and that "I have always been amazed that someone as bright as he could have contributed so little over so long a span of time".</ref> rather he describes as decisive his work with [[Hans Eysenck]]. He also mentions his interest in  the [[Behaviorism|behaviorist]] theories of [[Clark L. Hull]] which he says he abandoned largely because he found them to be incompatible with experimental findings during his years at Berkeley.<ref name="Jensen1997">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0160-2896(99)80002-6|title=Jensen on "Jensenism"|date=1998|last1=Jensen|first1=A.|journal=Intelligence|volume=26|issue=3|pages=181–208|ref=none}}</ref>


[[File:Arthur Jensen Vanderbilt 2002.jpg|300px|thumb|[[Arthur Jensen]], professor of educational psychology at UC Berkeley, wrote the 1969 article on intelligence that became one of the most controversial articles in the [[history of psychology]].]]
[[File:Arthur Jensen Vanderbilt 2002.jpg|300px|thumb|[[Arthur Jensen]], professor of educational psychology at UC Berkeley, wrote the 1969 article on intelligence that became one of the most controversial articles in the [[history of psychology]].]]
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intelligence difference. The preponderance of the evidence is, in my opinion, less consistent with a strictly environmental hypothesis than with a genetic hypothesis, which, of course, does not exclude the influence of environment or its interaction with genetic factors."<ref>{{harvnb|Tucker|1996|p=203}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gottfredson|1998}}</ref> He advocated the allocation of educational resources according to merit and insisted on the close correlation between intelligence and occupational status, arguing that "in a society that values and rewards individual talent and merit, genetic factors inevitably take on considerable importance."  Concerned that the average IQ in the US was inadequate to answer the increasing needs of an industrialised society, he predicted that people with lower IQs would become unemployable while at the same time there would be an insufficient number with higher IQs to fill professional posts. He felt that eugenic reform would prevent this more effectively than compensatory education, surmising that "the technique for raising intelligence ''per se'' in the sense of ''g'', probably lie more in the province of biological science than in psychology or education". He pointed out that intelligence and family size were inversely correlated, particularly amongst the black population, so that the current trend in average national intelligence was [[dysgenic]] rather than eugenic. As he wrote, "Is there a danger that current welfare policies, unaided by eugenic foresight, could lead to the genetic enslavement of a substantial segment of our population? The fuller consequences of our failure seriously to study these questions may well be judged by future generations as our society's greatest injustice to Negro Americans." He concluded by emphasizing the importance of child-centered education. Although a tradition had developed for the exclusive use of cognitive learning in schools, Jensen argued that it was not suited to "these children's genetic and cultural heritage": although capable of associative learning and memorization ("Level I" ability), they had difficulties with abstract  conceptual reasoning ("Level II" ability). He felt that in these circumstances the success of education depended on exploiting "the actual potential learning that is latent in these children's patterns of abilities". He suggested that, in order to ensure equality of opportunity, "schools and society must provide a range and diversity of educational methods, programs and goals, and of occupational opportunities, just as wide as the range of human abilities."<ref>{{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995|pp=363–365}}</ref><ref name="Tucker 1996 204">{{harvnb|Tucker|1996|p=204}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lerner|2002|p=270}}</ref>
intelligence difference. The preponderance of the evidence is, in my opinion, less consistent with a strictly environmental hypothesis than with a genetic hypothesis, which, of course, does not exclude the influence of environment or its interaction with genetic factors."<ref>{{harvnb|Tucker|1996|p=203}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gottfredson|1998}}</ref> He advocated the allocation of educational resources according to merit and insisted on the close correlation between intelligence and occupational status, arguing that "in a society that values and rewards individual talent and merit, genetic factors inevitably take on considerable importance."  Concerned that the average IQ in the US was inadequate to answer the increasing needs of an industrialised society, he predicted that people with lower IQs would become unemployable while at the same time there would be an insufficient number with higher IQs to fill professional posts. He felt that eugenic reform would prevent this more effectively than compensatory education, surmising that "the technique for raising intelligence ''per se'' in the sense of ''g'', probably lie more in the province of biological science than in psychology or education". He pointed out that intelligence and family size were inversely correlated, particularly amongst the black population, so that the current trend in average national intelligence was [[dysgenic]] rather than eugenic. As he wrote, "Is there a danger that current welfare policies, unaided by eugenic foresight, could lead to the genetic enslavement of a substantial segment of our population? The fuller consequences of our failure seriously to study these questions may well be judged by future generations as our society's greatest injustice to Negro Americans." He concluded by emphasizing the importance of child-centered education. Although a tradition had developed for the exclusive use of cognitive learning in schools, Jensen argued that it was not suited to "these children's genetic and cultural heritage": although capable of associative learning and memorization ("Level I" ability), they had difficulties with abstract  conceptual reasoning ("Level II" ability). He felt that in these circumstances the success of education depended on exploiting "the actual potential learning that is latent in these children's patterns of abilities". He suggested that, in order to ensure equality of opportunity, "schools and society must provide a range and diversity of educational methods, programs and goals, and of occupational opportunities, just as wide as the range of human abilities."<ref>{{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995|pp=363–365}}</ref><ref name="Tucker 1996 204">{{harvnb|Tucker|1996|p=204}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lerner|2002|p=270}}</ref>


Later, writing about how the article came into being, Jensen said that the editors of the Review had specifically asked him to include his view on the heritability of race differences, which he had not previously published. He also maintains that only five percent of the article touched on the topic of race difference in IQ.<ref name="Jensen1997">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1016/S0160-2896(99)80002-6| title = Jensen on "Jensenism"| date=1998| last1 = Jensen | first1 = A.| journal=Intelligence| volume = 26| issue = 3| pages = 181–208 |ref=none}}</ref> {{harvtxt|Cronbach|1975}} also gave a detailed account of how the student editors of ''Harvard Educational Review'' commissioned and negotiated the content of Jensen's article.<ref>{{harvnb|Cronbach|1975|p=3}}</ref><ref name="Jensen 1972">{{harvnb|Jensen|1972}}</ref>
[[File:Hans.Eysenck.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Hans Eysenck]], professor of psychology at the [[Institute of Psychiatry]] and Jensen's mentor, whose work has been largely discredited.<ref name=":14">{{Cite magazine |last1=O'Grady|first1=Cathleen |date=2020-07-15|title=Misconduct allegations push psychology hero off his pedestal|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/07/misconduct-allegations-push-psychology-hero-his-edestal|access-date=2020-07-24|magazine=Science |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Enquiry">{{cite web|date=October 2019|title=King's College London enquiry into publications authored by Professor Hans Eysenck with Professor Ronald Grossarth-Maticek|url=https://retractionwatch.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/HE-Enquiry.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Marks|first1=David F|last2=Buchanan|first2=Roderick D|date=2019-12-16|title=King's College London's enquiry into Hans J Eysenck's 'Unsafe' publications must be properly completed|journal=Journal of Health Psychology|language=en-US|volume=25|issue=1|pages=3–6|doi=10.1177/1359105319887791|issn=1359-1053|pmid=31841048|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]Jensen's article was widely criticized despite its lack of empirical faults. Criticisms were ideological in nature, and after a short time, the conclusions of the article were buried and ignored. Throughout his life, Jensen endured harassment for the article from students and academics.


Many academics have given commentaries on what they considered to be the main points of Jensen's article and the subsequent books in the early 1970s that expanded on its content. According to {{harvtxt|Jencks|Phillips|1998}}, in his article Jensen had argued "that educational programs for disadvantaged children initiated as the War on Poverty had failed, and the black-white race gap probably had a substantial genetic component." They summarised Jensen's argument as follows:<ref>{{harvnb|Jencks|Phillips|1998|p=16}}</ref>
===1980–present===
# "Most of the variation in black-white scores is genetic"
# "No one has advanced a plausible environmental explanation for the black-white gap"
# "Therefore it is more reasonable to assume that part of the black-white gap is genetic in origin"
According to {{harvtxt|Loehlin|Lindzey|Spuhler|1975}}, Jensen's article defended 3 claims:<ref>{{harvnb|Loehlin|Lindzey|Spuhler|1975}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2013}}
# [[IQ tests]] provide accurate measurements of a real human ability that is relevant in many aspects of life.
# Intelligence, as measured by IQ tests, is highly (about 80%) [[Heritability|heritable]] and parents with low IQs are much more likely to have children with low IQs
# Educational programs have been unable to significantly change the intelligence of individuals or groups.
According to {{harvtxt|Webster|1997}}, the article claimed "a  correlation between intelligence, measured by IQ tests, and racial genes".  He wrote that Jensen, based on empirical evidence, had concluded that "black intelligence was congenitally inferior to that of whites";  that "this partly explains unequal educational achievements"; and that, "because a certain level of underachievement was due to the inferior genetic attributes of blacks, compensatory and enrichment programs are bound to be ineffective in closing the racial gap in educational achievements."<ref>{{harvnb|Webster|1997|pp=19–20}}</ref> Several commentators mention Jensen's recommendations for schooling:<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Freeman|1980}}
* {{harvnb|Tucker|1996}}
* {{harvnb|Ornstein|1982}}
* {{harvnb|Pyle|1979}}
* {{harvnb|Valencia|1997}}
* {{harvnb|Nurcombe|De Lacey|Walker|1999}}
</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2013}} according to Barry Nurcombe,<ref>{{harvnb|Nurcombe|De Lacey|Walker|1999|page=45}}, Chapter 2, The Great Debate</ref>
{{blockquote|Jensen's own research suggests that IQ tests amalgamate two forms of thinking which are hierarchically related but which become differentially distributed in the population according to SES: level 1 and level 2, associative learning and abstract thinking (''g''), respectively. Blacks do as well as whites on tests of associative learning, but they fall behind on abstract thinking. The educational system should attend to this discrepancy and derive a more pluralistic approach. The current system puts minority groups at a marked disadvantage, since it overemphasizes ''g''-type thinking.}}
Jensen had already suggested in the article that initiatives like the [[Head Start Program]] were ineffective, writing in the opening sentence, "Compensatory education has been tried and it apparently has failed."<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995}}
* {{harvnb|Tucker|2002}}
* {{harvnb|Maltby|Day|Macaskill|2007}}</ref> Other experts in [[psychometrics]], such as {{harvtxt|Flynn|1980}} and {{harvtxt|Mackintosh|1998}}, have given accounts of Jensen's theory of Level I and Level II abilities, which originated in this and earlier articles. As the [[history of psychology|historian of psychology]] [[William H. Tucker (psychologist)|William H. Tucker]] commented, Jensen's question is leading: "Is there a danger that current welfare policies, unaided by eugenic foresight, could lead to the genetic enslavement of a substantial segment of our population? The fuller consequences of our failure seriously to study these questions may well be judged by future generations as our society's greatest injustice to Negro Americans". Tucker noted that it repeats Shockley's phrase "genetic enslavement", which proved later to be one of the most inflammatory statements in the article.<ref name="Tucker 1996 204" />
 
Shockley conducted a widespread publicity campaign for Jensen's article, supported by the Pioneer Fund. Jensen's views became widely known in many spheres. As a result, there was renewed academic interest in the hereditarian viewpoint and in intelligence tests. Jensen's original article was widely circulated and often cited; the material was taught in university courses over a range of academic disciplines. In response to his critics, Jensen wrote a series of books on all aspects of psychometrics. There was also a widespread positive response from the popular press&nbsp;— with ''[[The New York Times Magazine]]'' dubbing the topic "Jensenism"&nbsp;— and amongst politicians and policy makers.<ref name="harvnb|Tucker|2002" /><ref>{{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995}}</ref>
 
In 1971 [[Richard Herrnstein]] wrote a long article on intelligence tests in [[The Atlantic]] for a general readership. Undecided on the issues of race and intelligence, he discussed instead score differences between social classes. Like Jensen he took a firmly hereditarian point of view. He also commented that the policy of equal opportunity would result in making social classes more rigid, separated by biological differences, resulting in a downward trend in average intelligence that would conflict with the growing needs of a technological society.<ref>{{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995|p=365}}</ref>
 
[[File:Hans.Eysenck.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Hans Eysenck]], professor of psychology at the [[Institute of Psychiatry]] and Jensen's mentor, whose work has been largely discredited.<ref name=":14">{{Cite magazine |last1=O'Grady|first1=Cathleen |date=2020-07-15|title=Misconduct allegations push psychology hero off his pedestal|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/07/misconduct-allegations-push-psychology-hero-his-edestal|access-date=2020-07-24|magazine=Science |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Enquiry">{{cite web|date=October 2019|title=King's College London enquiry into publications authored by Professor Hans Eysenck with Professor Ronald Grossarth-Maticek|url=https://retractionwatch.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/HE-Enquiry.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Marks|first1=David F|last2=Buchanan|first2=Roderick D|date=2019-12-16|title=King's College London's enquiry into Hans J Eysenck's 'Unsafe' publications must be properly completed|journal=Journal of Health Psychology|language=en-US|volume=25|issue=1|pages=3–6|doi=10.1177/1359105319887791|issn=1359-1053|pmid=31841048|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
Jensen and Herrnstein's articles were widely discussed. [[Hans Eysenck]] defended the hereditarian point of view and the use of intelligence tests in "Race, Intelligence and Education" (1971), a pamphlet presenting Jensenism to a popular audience, and "The Inequality of Man" (1973). He was severely critical of anti-hereditarians whose policies he blamed for many of the problems in society.  In the first book he wrote that, "All the evidence to date suggests the strong and indeed overwhelming importance of genetic factors in producing the great variety of intellectual differences which [are] observed between certain racial groups", adding in the second, that "for anyone wishing to perpetuate class or caste differences, genetics is the real foe".<ref>{{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995|pp=366–367}}</ref> "Race, Intelligence and Education" was immediately criticized in strong terms by IQ researcher [[Sandra Scarr]] as an "uncritical popularization of Jensen's ideas without the nuances and qualifiers that make much of Jensen's writing credible or at least responsible."<ref name="Scarr1981">{{cite book|first=S.|last=Scarr|title=Race, Social Class, and Individual Differences in I.Q.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UW9cjBo_nCIC&pg=PA62|date=1981|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-89859-055-5|pages=62–65|postscript=;}} article previously published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', 1971, ''174'', 1223–1228.</ref> Later scholars have identified errors and suspected data manipulation in Eysenck's work.<ref name=":14" /> An inquiry on behalf of [[King's College London]] found 26 of his papers to be "incompatible with modern clinical science".<ref name=":13">{{Cite magazine |last1=O'Grady |first1=Cathleen |date=2020-07-15|title=Misconduct allegations push psychology hero off his pedestal|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/misconduct-allegations-push-psychology-hero-his-pedestal|access-date=2020-07-24|magazine=Science |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Enquiry" /><ref name="Boseley 2019">{{cite news|last=Boseley|first=Sarah|date=11 October 2019|title=Work of renowned UK psychologist Hans Eysenck ruled 'unsafe'|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/oct/11/work-of-renowned-uk-psychologist-hans-eysenck-ruled-unsafe}}</ref> Rod Buchanan, a biographer of Eysenck, has argued that 87 publications by Eysenck should be retracted.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":14" />
 
Student groups and faculty at Berkeley and Harvard protested Jensen and Herrnstein with charges of racism. Two weeks after the appearance of Jensen's article, [[Students for a Democratic Society]] staged protests against Arthur Jensen on the campus of the [[University of California, Berkeley]], chanting "Fight racism. Fire Jensen!"<ref name="Jensen 1972" /><ref>{{harvnb|Cronbach|1975|pages=3–5}}</ref> Jensen himself states that he even lost his employment at Berkeley because of the controversy.<ref name="Jensen1997" /> Similar campaigns were waged in London against Eysenck and in Boston against [[sociobiologist]] [[E. O. Wilson|Edward Wilson]]. The attacks on Wilson were orchestrated by the [[Sociobiology Study Group]], part of the left wing organization [[Science for the People]], formed of 35 scientists and students, including the Harvard biologists [[Stephen J. Gould]] and [[Richard Lewontin]], who both became prominent critics of hereditarian research in race and intelligence.<ref>{{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995|pp=368–373}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Segerstråle|2001|pp=17–24}} Segerstråle gives a detailed account of the [[Sociobiology Study Group]], founded in 1975.</ref> In 1972 50 academics, including the psychologists Jensen, Eysenck, and Herrnstein as well as five Nobel laureates, signed a statement entitled "Resolution on Scientific Freedom Regarding Human Behavior and Heredity", criticizing the climate of "suppression, punishment and defamation of scientists who emphasized the role of heredity in human behavior". In October 1973 a half-page advertisement entitled "Resolution Against Racism" appeared in ''[[The New York Times]]''. With over 1000 academic signatories, including Lewontin, it condemned "racist research", denouncing in particular Jensen, Shockley and Herrnstein.<ref>{{harvnb|Segerstråle|2001|page=33,44,272}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ornstein|1974|page=174}}</ref>
 
This was accompanied by commentaries, criticisms and denouncements from the academic community. Two issues of the  [[Harvard Educational Review]] were devoted to critiques of Jensen's work by psychologists, biologists and educationalists. As documented by {{harvtxt|Wooldridge|1995}}, the main commentaries involved: [[population genetics]] (Richard Lewontin, [[Luigi Cavalli-Sforza]], Walter Bodmer);  the [[heritability of IQ|heritability of intelligence]] ([[Christopher Jencks]], [[Mary Jo Bane]], [[Leon Kamin]], [[David Layzer]]);  the possible inaccuracy of IQ tests as measures of intelligence (summarised in {{harvnb|Jensen|1980|pages=20–21}}); and sociological assumptions about the relationship between intelligence and income (Jencks and Bane).<ref>{{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995|pp=374–376}}</ref> More specifically, the Harvard biologist Richard Lewontin commented on Jensen's use of population genetics, writing that, "The fundamental error of Jensen's argument is to confuse heritability of character within a population with heritability between two populations."<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995|page=374}}
* {{harvnb|Block|Dworkin|1976|page=89}}</ref> Jensen denied making such a claim, saying that his argument was that high within-group heritability increased the probability of non-zero between-group heritability.<ref>{{harvnb|Sesardić|2005|pages=132–134}}</ref> The political scientists Christopher Jencks and Mary Jo Bane, also from Harvard, recalculated the heritability of intelligence as 45% instead of Jensen's estimate of 80%; and they calculated that only about 12% of variation in income was due to IQ, so that in their view the connections between IQ and occupation were less clear than Jensen had suggested.<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995|page=375–376}}
* {{harvnb|Block|Dworkin|1976|page=330–335}}, "Five Myths About Your IQ"</ref>
 
Ideological differences also emerged in the controversy. The circle of scientists around Lewontin and Gould rejected the research of Jensen and Herrnstein as "bad science".  While not objecting to research into intelligence ''per se'', they felt that this research was politically motivated and objected to the [[reification (fallacy)|reification]] of intelligence: the treatment of the numerical quantity ''g'' as a physical attribute like skin color that could be meaningfully averaged over a population group. They claimed that this was contrary to the scientific method, which required explanations at a molecular level, rather than the analysis of a statistical artifact in terms of undiscovered processes in biology or genetics. In response to this criticism, Jensen later wrote: "...&nbsp;what Gould has mistaken for 'reification' is neither more nor less than the common practice in every science of hypothesizing explanatory models to account for the observed relationships within a given domain. Well known examples include the heliocentric theory of planetary motion, the Bohr atom, the electromagnetic field, the kinetic theory of gases, gravitation, quarks, Mendelian genes, mass, velocity, etc. None of these constructs exists as a palpable entity occupying physical space." He asked why psychology should be denied "the common right of every science to the use of hypothetical constructs or any theoretical speculation concerning causal explanations of its observable phenomena".<ref name="Segerstråle 2001" /><ref>{{harvnb|Segerstråle|1992}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jensen|1982}}</ref>
 
[[File:Cyril Burt 1930s.jpg|left|thumb|180px|[[Cyril Burt]], the English educationalist whose disputed [[twin study|twin studies]] were used as data by Jensen in some of his early articles and books]]
The academic debate also became entangled with the so-called [[Cyril Burt#"The Burt Affair"|"Burt Affair"]], because Jensen's article had partially relied on the 1966 [[twin study|twin studies]] of the British educational psychologist [[Cyril Burt|Sir Cyril Burt]]: shortly after Burt's death in 1971, there were allegations, prompted by research of Leon Kamin, that Burt had fabricated parts of his data, charges which have never been fully resolved.<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995|page=375}}
* {{harvnb|Samelson|1997}}
* {{harvnb|Mackintosh|1995}}
* {{harvnb|Mackintosh|1998|page=74–76}}
* {{harvnb|Alland|2002}}</ref> Franz Samelson documents how Jensen's views on Burt's work varied over the years: Jensen was Burt's main defender in the US during the 1970s.<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Samelson|1997}}
* {{harvnb|Jensen|1974}}
* {{harvnb|Jensen|1978}}</ref> In 1983, following the publication in 1978 of Leslie Hearnshaw's official biography of Burt, Jensen changed his mind, "fully accept[ing] as valid&nbsp;... Hearnshaw's biography" and stating that "of course [Burt] will never be exonerated for his empirical deceptions".<ref>{{harvnb|Jensen|1983|pages=17,20}}</ref> However, in 1992, he wrote that "the essence of the Burt affair&nbsp;... [was] a cabal of motivated opponents, avidly aided by the mass media, to bash [Burt's] reputation completely",<ref>{{harvnb|Jensen|1992a|page=121}}</ref> a view repeated in an invited address on Burt before the [[American Psychological Association]],<ref>{{harvnb|Jensen|1992b}}</ref> when he called into question Hearnshaw's scholarship.<ref>{{harvnb|Samelson|1997|pages=146–148}}</ref>
[[File:Trofim Lysenko portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Trofim Lysenko]] who, as director of Soviet research in biology under [[Joseph Stalin]], blocked research into genetics for ideological reasons]]
Similar charges of a politically motivated campaign to stifle scientific research on racial differences, later dubbed "Neo-[[Lysenkoism]]", were frequently repeated by Jensen and his supporters.<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Segerstråle|2001}}
* {{harvnb|Jackson|2005}}
* {{harvnb|Herrnstein|1973}}
* {{harvnb|Jensen|1982}}
* {{harvnb|Davis|1983}}
* {{harvnb|Pearson|1991}}
* {{harvnb|Gottfredson|1998}}</ref> {{harvtxt|Jensen|1972}} bemoaned the fact that "a block has been raised because of the obvious implications for the understanding of racial differences in ability and achievement. Serious considerations of whether genetic as well as environmental factors are involved has been taboo in academic circles", adding that: "In the bizarre racist theories of the Nazis and the disastrous Lysenkoism of the Soviet Union under Stalin, we have seen clear examples of what happens when science is corrupted by subservience to political dogma."<ref>{{harvnb|Jackson|2005|page=184}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jensen|1972|page=328}}</ref>
 
After the appearance of his 1969 article, Jensen was later more explicit about racial differences in intelligence, stating in 1973 "that something between one-half and three-fourths of the average IQ differences between American Negroes and whites is attributable to genetic factors." He even speculated that the underlying mechanism was a "biochemical connection between skin pigmentation and intelligence" linked to their joint development in the [[ectoderm]] of the embryo. Although Jensen avoided any personal involvement with segregationists in the US, he did not distance himself from the approaches of journals of the far right in Europe, many of whom viewed his research as justifying their political ends. In an interview with [[Nation Europa]], he said that some human races differed from one another even more than some animal species, claiming that a measurement of "genetic distance" between blacks and whites showed that they had diverged over 46,000 years ago. He also granted interviews to [[Alain de Benoist|Alain de Benoist's]] French journal ''Nouvelle École'' and [[Jürgen Rieger|Jürgen Rieger's]] German journal ''[[Neue Anthropologie]]'' of which he later became a regular contributor and editor, apparently unaware of its political orientation owing to his poor knowledge of German.<ref>{{harvnb|Tucker|1996|pp=203,261–264}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kühl|2001|p=112}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jensen|1973|p=363}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rose|1975|p=202}}</ref>
 
The debate was further exacerbated by issues of racial bias that had already intensified through the 1960s because of civil rights concerns and changes in the social climate. In 1968 the [[Association of Black Psychologists]] (ABP) had demanded a moratorium on IQ tests for children from minority groups.
After a committee set up by the American Psychological Association drew up guidelines for assessing minority groups, failing to confirm the claims of racial bias, {{harvtxt|Jackson|1975}} wrote the following as part of a response on behalf of the ABP:<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Jensen|1980|page=16}}
* {{harvnb|Wooldridge|1995|page=376}}
* {{harvnb|Hickman|Reynolds|1986|page=411}}</ref>
 
{{blockquote|Psychological testing historically has been a quasi-scientific tool in the perpetuation of racism on all levels of scientific objectivity, it [testing] has provided a cesspool of intrinsically and inferentially fallacious data which inflates the egos of whites by demeaning Black people and threatens to potentiate [[Black genocide]].}}
 
Other professional academic bodies reacted to the dispute differently. The ''Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues'', a division of the [[American Psychological Society]], issued a public statement in 1969 criticizing Jensen's research, declaring that, "To construct questions about complex behavior in terms of heredity ''versus'' environment is to oversimplify the essence and nature of human development and behavior." The [[American Anthropological Association]] convened a panel discussion in 1969 at its annual general meeting, shortly after the appearance of Jensen's paper, where several participants labelled his research as "racist".<ref name="Jensen 1972" /> Subsequently, the association issued an official clarification, stating that, "The shabby misuse of IQ testing in the support of past American racist policies has created understandable anxiety over current research on the inheritance of human intelligence. But the resulting personal attacks on a few scientists with unpopular views has had a chilling effect on the entire field of behavioral genetics and clouds public discussion of its implications." In 1975 the [[Genetics Society of America]] made a similarly cautious statement: "The application of the techniques of quantitative genetics to the analysis of human behavior is fraught with human complications and potential biases, but well-designed research on the genetic and environmental components of human psychological traits may yield valid and socially useful results and should not be discouraged."<ref>{{harvnb|Modgil|Modgil|1987|p=44}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Scarr|Carter-Saltzman|1982|page=796}}</ref>
 
===1980–2000===
[[File:Jim Flynn Political Studies University of Otago.jpg|thumb|180px|[[James Flynn (academic)|James Flynn]], the New Zealand political scientist who has studied changes in group-level IQ averages over time]]
In the 1980s, political scientist [[James Flynn (academic)|James Flynn]] compared the results of groups who took both older and newer versions of specific IQ tests. His research led him to the discovery of what is now called the [[Flynn effect]]: a substantial increase in average IQ scores over the years across all groups tested. His discovery was confirmed later by many other studies. While trying to understand these remarkable test score increases, Flynn had [[axiom|postulated]] in 1987 that "IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather a correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence".<ref>{{harvnb|Richards|1997|p=279}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Maltby|Day|Macaskill|2007|p=302}}</ref> By 2009, however, Flynn felt that the IQ test score changes are real. He suggests that our fast-changing world has faced successive generations with new cognitive challenges that have considerably stimulated intellectual ability. "Our brains as presently constructed probably have much excess capacity ready to be used if needed. That was certainly the case in 1900."<ref>Flynn, James R. (2009). What Is Intelligence? (p. 110). Cambridge University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref>  Flynn notes that "Our ancestors in 1900 were not mentally retarded. Their intelligence was anchored in everyday reality. We differ from them in that we can use abstractions and logic and the hypothetical to attack the formal problems that arise when science liberates thought from concrete situations. Since 1950, we have become more ingenious in going beyond previously learned rules to solve problems on the spot."<ref>Flynn, James R. (2009). What Is Intelligence? (pp. 10-11). Cambridge University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref>
 
[[File:Prof-Richard-Lynn-7635-2.jpg|left|thumb|180px|[[Richard Lynn]], the controversial English psychologist who has argued for global group differences in intelligence]]
From the 1980s onwards, the Pioneer Fund continued to fund hereditarian research on race and intelligence, in particular the two English-born psychologists [[Richard Lynn]] of the [[University of Ulster]] and [[J. Philippe Rushton]] of the [[University of Western Ontario]], who became president of the fund in 2002.  Rushton returned to the cranial measurements of the 19th century, using brain size as an extra factor determining intelligence; in collaboration with Jensen, he most recently developed updated arguments for the genetic explanation of race differences in intelligence.<ref>{{harvnb|Rushton|Jensen|2005}}</ref>
Lynn, longtime editor of and contributor to ''[[Mankind Quarterly]]'', has concentrated his research in race and intelligence on gathering and tabulating data purporting to show race differences in intelligence across the world. He has also made suggestions about the political implications of his data, including the revival of older theories of eugenics.<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Tucker|2002}}
* {{harvnb|Richards|1997}}
* {{harvnb|Richardson|2003|p=226}}
* [http://www.mankindquarterly.org/editorial.html Current editorial board of Mankind Quarterly]</ref>
 
{{harvtxt|Snyderman|Rothman|1987}} announced the results of a survey conducted in 1984 on a sample of over a thousand psychologists, sociologists and educationalists in a multiple choice questionnaire, and expanded in 1988 into the book ''[[The IQ Controversy, the Media and Public Policy (book)|The IQ Controversy, the Media, and Public Policy]]''. The book claimed to document a liberal bias in the media coverage of scientific findings regarding IQ. The survey included the question, "Which of the following best characterizes your opinion of the heritability of black-white differences in IQ?" 661 researchers returned the questionnaire, and of these, 14% declined to answer the question, 24% voted that there was insufficient evidence to give an answer, 1% voted that the gap was purely "due entirely to genetic variation", 15% voted that it "due entirely due to environmental variation" and 45% voted that it was a "product of genetic and environmental variation".
{{harvtxt|Jencks|Phillips|1998}} have pointed out that those who replied "both" did not have the opportunity to specify whether genetics played a large role. There has been no agreement amongst [[psychometrics|psychometricians]] on the significance of this particular answer.<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Jencks|Phillips|1998|p=20}}
* {{harvnb|Flynn|1991|p=7}}
* {{harvnb|Gottfredson|1994}}
* {{harvnb|Sternberg|Grigorenko|Kidd|2006}}
</ref> Scientists supporting the hereditarian point of view have seen it as a vindication of their position.<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Winston|1996}}
* {{harvnb|Gordon|1992}}
* {{harvnb|Gottfredson|1994}}
* {{harvnb|Eysenck|1994}}
* {{harvnb|Eysenck|2000}}
* {{harvnb|Miele|2002}}</ref>
 
In 1989, Rushton was placed under police investigation by the Attorney General of [[Ontario]], after complaints that he had promoted racism in one of his publications on race differences. In the same year, [[Linda Gottfredson]] of the [[University of Delaware]] had an extended battle with her university over the legitimacy of grants from the Pioneer Fund, eventually settled in her favour.<ref name="harvnb|Tucker|2002" /><ref>{{harvnb|Gross|1990}}</ref>
 
Both later responded with an updated version of Henry E. Garrett's "egalitarian dogma", labelling the claim that all races were equal in cognitive ability as an "egalitarian fiction" and a "scientific hoax". {{harvtxt|Gottfredson|1994}} spoke of a "great fraud", a "collective falsehood" and a "scientific lie", citing the findings of Snyderman and Rothman as justification. {{harvtxt|Rushton|1996}} wrote that there was a "taboo on race" in scientific research that had "no parallel&nbsp;... not the Inquisition, not Stalin, not Hitler".<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Winston|1996|p=246}}
* {{harvnb|Winston|1996|p=236}}, footnote: "Rushton's (1994) notion of the 'equalitarian fiction' is that Blacks and Whites are genetically equal in cognitive ability. Gottfredson's (1994) notion of the 'egalitarian fiction' is that 'racial-ethnic groups never differ in average developed intelligence' (p. 53). I have never seen a scholarly source which maintained that groups never show mean differences in intelligence test scores. Gottfredson gives no reference for anyone who holds this position."</ref> In his 1998 book "[[The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability]]", Jensen reiterated his earlier claims of Neo-[[Lysenkoism]], writing that "The concept of human races [as] a fiction" has various "different sources, none of them scientific", one of them being "Neo-Marxist philosophy", which "excludes consideration of genetic or biological factors&nbsp;... from any part in explaining behavioral differences amongst humans". In the same year, the [[Evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologist]] [[Kevin B. MacDonald]] went much further, reviving Garrett's claim of the "Boas cult" as a Jewish conspiracy, after which "research on racial differences ceased, and the profession completely excluded eugenicists like [[Madison Grant]] and [[Charles Davenport]]".<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Jackson|2005|pp=201–202}}
* {{harvnb|Jensen|1998|p=420}}, The meaning of race
* {{harvnb|MacDonald|1998|p=103}}</ref>
 
In 1994, the debate on race and intelligence was reignited by the publication of the book
''[[The Bell Curve|The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life]]'' by Richard Herrnstein and [[Charles Murray (political scientist)|Charles Murray]]. The book was received positively by the media, with prominent coverage in ''[[Newsweek]]'', ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', ''[[The New York Times]]'' and ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. Although only two chapters of the book were devoted to race differences in intelligence, treated from the same hereditarian standpoint as Jensen's 1969 paper, it nevertheless caused a similar furore in the academic community to Jensen's article. Many critics, including Stephen J. Gould and Leon Kamin, asserted that the book contained unwarranted simplifications and flaws in its analysis; in particular there were criticisms of its reliance on Lynn's estimates of average IQ scores in [[South Africa]], where data had been used selectively, and on Rushton's work on brain size and intelligence, which was controversial and disputed. These criticisms were subsequently presented in books, most notably ''[[The Bell Curve Debate]]'' (1995), ''[[Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth]]'' (1996) and an expanded edition of Gould's ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'' (1996).<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Maltby|Day|Macaskill|2007|pp=334–347}}
* {{harvnb|Hothersall|2003|pp=440–441}}
* {{harvnb|Fish|2002|pp=57–94}}, Chapter 3, "The Misuse of Life History Theory: J. P. Rushton and the Pseudoscience of Racial Hierarchy" by [[Joseph L. Graves]]
* {{harvnb|Sternberg|Kaufman|2001|p=14,19}}, Chapter 2, "Evolutionary Psychology", by James B. Grossman and [[James Kaufman]]
</ref>
In 1994 a group of 52 scientists, including Rushton, Lynn, Jensen and Eysenck, were cosignatories of an [[op-ed]] article in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' written by [[Linda Gottfredson]] entitled "[[Mainstream Science on Intelligence]]". The article, supporting the conclusions of  ''The Bell Curve'', was later republished in an expanded version in the journal ''[[Intelligence (journal)|Intelligence]]''.{{sfn|Gottfredson|1997}}<ref>{{harvnb|Chamorro-Premuzic|2007|p=84}} "More importantly differential psychologists have been unanimous in their support for ''The Bell Curve''. In fact, in the year the book was published, 52 eminent intelligence experts (not only from differential psychology) published a dossier entitled 'Mainstream Science on Intelligence' in which they endorsed the core claims and data endorsed by Herrnstein and Murray."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gillborn|2008|p=112}} "''The Bell Curve'' sparked huge controversy in the 1990s with its claims that African Americans (and 'underclass whites') were genetically predisposed to lower intelligence and higher criminality. In 1994, as the controversy raged on, a group of 52 professors (including Rushton, Lynn, Eysenck and Jensen) presented themselves as 'experts in intelligence and allied fields' and signed a statement that was published in ''The Wall Street Journal'' under the title 'Mainstream science on intelligence'. Among the statements of supposedly 'mainstream' scientific opinion were the following: 'Genetics plays a bigger role than environment in creating IQ differences among individuals&nbsp;... The bell curve for whites is centred roughly around IQ 100; the bell curve for American blacks roughly around 85&nbsp;... black 17-year olds perform, on the average, more like white 13-year olds in reading, math and science, with Hispanics in between.' These views are presented as if distilled from numerous 'scientific' studies and the tone is somewhat dry. But the meaning is clear. First, the authors are saying that intelligence is largely a matter of genetic inheritance. Second, they are saying that most whites are naturally more intelligent than most black people; in fact, that the 'average white' is more intelligent than 8 out of 10 African Americans!"</ref> The editorial included the statements:<ref>{{harvnb|Gillborn|2008|p=112}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gottfredson|1997}}</ref>
 
{{blockquote|Genetics plays a bigger role than environment in creating IQ differences among individuals&nbsp;... The bell curve for whites is centred roughly around IQ 100; the bell curve for American blacks roughly around 85 ... black 17-year olds perform, on the average, more like white 13-year olds in reading, math and science, with Hispanics in between.}}
 
Another early criticism was that Herrnstein and Murray did not submit their work to academic peer review before publication.<ref>Arthur S. Goldberger and Charles F. Manski (1995) "Review Article: The Bell Curve by Herrnstein and Murray", ''Journal of Economic Literature'', 36(2), June 1995, pp. 762–776.  "HM and their publishers have done a disservice by circumventing peer review&nbsp;....a process of scientific review is now under way. But, given the process to date, peer review of The Bell Curve is now an exercise in damage control&nbsp;...."</ref>  There were also three books written from the hereditarian point of view: ''Why race matters: race differences and what they mean'' (1997) by [[Michael Levin (philosopher)|Michael Levin]]; ''[[The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability]]'' (1998) by Jensen; and ''Intelligence; a new look'' by Hans Eysenck. Various other books of collected contributions appeared at the same time, including ''The black-white test gap'' (1998) edited by [[Christopher Jencks]] and Meredith Phillips, ''Intelligence, heredity and environment'' (1997) edited by [[Robert Sternberg]] and Elena Grigorenko.<ref>Fish (2002) pp. 1–28</ref> A section in ''IQ and human intelligence'' (1998) by [[Nicholas Mackintosh]] discussed [[ethnic group]]s and ''Race and intelligence: separating science from myth'' (2002) edited by Jefferson Fish presented further commentary on ''The Bell Curve'' by anthropologists, psychologists, sociologists, historians, biologists and statisticians.<ref>Sternberg, Grigorenko & Kidd (2005) [http://minority-health.pitt.edu/archive/00000515/01/Intelligence,_Race,_and_Genetics.pdf Intelligence, Race and Genetics] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100726135211/http://minority-health.pitt.edu/archive/00000515/01/Intelligence,_Race,_and_Genetics.pdf |date=2010-07-26 }}</ref>
 
In 1999 the same journal ''Intelligence'' reprinted as an invited editorial a long article by the [[Attorneys in the United States|attorney]] [[Harry F. Weyher Jr.]] defending the integrity of the Pioneer Fund, of which he was then president and of which several editors, including Gottfredson, Jensen, Lynn and Rushton, were grantees. In 1994 the Pioneer-financed journal ''[[Mankind Quarterly]]'',<ref>{{harvnb|Tucker|2002|p=2}}</ref> of which [[Roger Pearson (anthropologist)|Roger Pearson]] was the manager and pseudonymous contributor, had been described by [[Charles Lane (journalist)|Charles Lane]]  in a review of ''The Bell Curve'' in the [[New York Review of Books]] as "a notorious journal of 'racial history' founded, and funded, by men who believe in the genetic superiority of the white race"; he had called the fund and its journal "scientific racism's keepers of the flame." Gottfredson had previously defended the fund in 1989–1990, asserting that ''Mankind Quarterly'' was a "multicultural journal" dedicated to "diversity ... as an object of dispassionate study" and that Pearson did not approve of membership of the [[American Nazi Party]]. {{harvtxt|Pearson|1991}} had himself defended the fund in his book ''Race, Intelligence and Bias in Academe.''<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Tucker|2002|pp=2,203,206–209}}
</ref>
 
In response to the debate on ''The Bell Curve'', the [[American Psychological Association]] set up a ten-person taskforce, chaired by [[Ulrich Neisser]], to report on the book and its findings. In its report, "[[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]]", published in February 1996, the committee made the following comments on race differences in intelligence:<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Neisser|1996|p=97}}
* {{harvnb|Mackintosh|1998|p=148}}
* {{harvnb|Maltby|Day|Macaskill|2007|pp=334–347}}
* {{harvnb|Hothersall|2003|pp=440–441}}
</ref>
 
{{blockquote|African American IQ scores have long averaged about 15 points below those of Whites, with correspondingly lower scores on academic achievement tests. In recent years the achievement-test gap has narrowed appreciably. It is possible that the IQ-score differential is narrowing as well, but this has not been clearly established. The cause of that differential is not known; it is apparently not due to any simple form of bias in the content or administration of the tests themselves. The Flynn effect shows that environmental factors can produce differences of at least this magnitude, but that effect is mysterious in its own right. Several culturally-based explanations of the Black/White IQ differential have been proposed; some are plausible, but so far none has been conclusively supported. There is even less empirical support for a genetic interpretation. In short, no adequate explanation of the differential between the IQ means of Blacks and Whites is presently available.}}
 
Jensen commented:
{{blockquote|As I read the APA statement, [...] I didn't feel it was contradicting my position, but rather merely sidestepping it. It seems more evasive of my position than contradictory. The committee did acknowledge the factual status of what I have termed the [[Charles Spearman|Spearman]] Effect, the reality of ''[[General intelligence factor|g]]'', the inadequacy of test bias and [[socioeconomic status]] as causal explanations, and many other conclusions that don't differ at all from my own position. [...] Considering that the report was commissioned by the APA, I was surprised it went as far as it did. Viewed in that light, I am not especially displeased by it.<ref>Miele, Frank (2002). Intelligence, Race, and Genetics: Conversations with Arthur R. Jensen. Oxford: Westview Press. {{ISBN|0-8133-4274-0}}.</ref>}}
 
Rushton found himself at the centre of another controversy in 1999 when unsolicited copies of a special abridged version of his 1995 book ''[[Race, Evolution and Behavior]]'', aimed at a general readership, were mass mailed to psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists in North American universities. As a result, [[Transaction Publishers]] withdrew from publishing the pamphlet, financed by the Pioneer Fund, and issued an apology in the January 2000 edition of the journal ''[[Society (journal)|Society]]''. In the pamphlet Rushton recounted how black Africans had been seen by outside observers through the centuries as naked, insanitary, impoverished and unintelligent. In modern times he remarked that their average IQ of 70 "is the lowest ever recorded", due to smaller average brain size. He explained these differences in terms of evolutionary history: those that had migrated to colder climates in the north to evolve into whites and Asians had adapted genetically to have more self-control, lower levels of sex hormones, greater intelligence, more complex social structures, and more stable families. He concluded that whites and Asians are more disposed to "invest time and energy in their children rather than the pursuit of sexual thrills. They are 'dads' rather than 'cads.'" J. Philippe Rushton did not distance himself from groups on the far right in the US. He was a regular contributor to the newsletters of [[American Renaissance (magazine)|American Renaissance]] and spoke at many of their biennial conferences, in 2006 sharing the platform with [[Nick Griffin]], leader of the [[British National Party]].<ref name="harvnb|Tucker|2002" /><ref>{{harvnb|Tucker|2003}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rushton|2000}}</ref><ref>[http://www.gazette.uwo.ca/2000/February/1/News3.htm Psych prof accused of racism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515022349/http://www.gazette.uwo.ca/2000/February/1/News3.htm|date=2011-05-15}}, [[University of Western Ontario|UWO]] Gazette, February 2000</ref>
 
===2000–present===
In 2002, [[Richard Lynn]] and [[Tatu Vanhanen]], published ''[[IQ and the Wealth of Nations]]''.<ref name="main">Lynn, R. and Vanhanen, T. (2002). [https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ4rLiAbHQQC IQ and the wealth of nations]. Westport, CT: Praeger. {{ISBN|0-275-97510-X}}</ref> Vanhanen claimed "Whereas the average IQ of Finns is 97, in Africa it is between 60 and 70. Differences in intelligence are the most significant factor in explaining poverty." A complaint by Finland's "Ombudsman for Minorities", Mikko Puumalainen, resulted in Vanhanen being considered to be investigated for incitement of "racial hatred" by the Finnish [[Keskusrikospoliisi|National Bureau of Investigations]].<ref>[http://www.hs.fi/english/article/1076153484261 Comments in interview could bring charges of inciting racism against PM Vanhanen's father] Helsingin Sanomat, August 12, 2004</ref> In 2004, the police stated they found no reason to suspect he incited racial hatred and decided not to launch an investigation.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.poliisi.fi/poliisi/krp/home.nsf/PFBD/2465D0FDFBE86B05C2256EEE0048566C?opendocument |title=KRP ei aloita esitutkintaa Vanhasen lausunnoista |language=fi |date=August 18, 2004 |website=National Bureau of Investigation |access-date=July 19, 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140726014558/http://www.poliisi.fi/poliisi/krp/home.nsf/PFBD/2465D0FDFBE86B05C2256EEE0048566C?opendocument |archive-date=2014-07-26 }}</ref> Several negative reviews of the book have been published in the scholarly literature. Susan Barnett and [[Wendy M. Williams]] wrote that "we see an edifice built on layer upon layer of arbitrary assumptions and selective [[data manipulation]]. The data on which the entire book is based are of questionable validity and are used in ways that cannot be justified." They also wrote that cross country comparisons are "virtually meaningless."<ref>{{Cite journal | journal=Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books | date=August 2004 | volume = 49 | issue = 4 | pages = 389–396 |last1=Barnett |first1=Susan M. |last2=Williams |first2=Wendy | title = National Intelligence and the Emperor's New Clothes |url= http://psycinfo.apa.org/psyccritiques/display/?uid=2004-17780-001 | archive-url= https://archive.today/20120717135726/http://psycinfo.apa.org/psyccritiques/display/?uid=2004-17780-001 | archive-date=2012-07-17 | doi = 10.1037/004367 }}</ref>
In 2002, [[Richard Lynn]] and [[Tatu Vanhanen]], published ''[[IQ and the Wealth of Nations]]''.<ref name="main">Lynn, R. and Vanhanen, T. (2002). [https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ4rLiAbHQQC IQ and the wealth of nations]. Westport, CT: Praeger. {{ISBN|0-275-97510-X}}</ref> Vanhanen claimed "Whereas the average IQ of Finns is 97, in Africa it is between 60 and 70. Differences in intelligence are the most significant factor in explaining poverty." A complaint by Finland's "Ombudsman for Minorities", Mikko Puumalainen, resulted in Vanhanen being considered to be investigated for incitement of "racial hatred" by the Finnish [[Keskusrikospoliisi|National Bureau of Investigations]].<ref>[http://www.hs.fi/english/article/1076153484261 Comments in interview could bring charges of inciting racism against PM Vanhanen's father] Helsingin Sanomat, August 12, 2004</ref> In 2004, the police stated they found no reason to suspect he incited racial hatred and decided not to launch an investigation.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.poliisi.fi/poliisi/krp/home.nsf/PFBD/2465D0FDFBE86B05C2256EEE0048566C?opendocument |title=KRP ei aloita esitutkintaa Vanhasen lausunnoista |language=fi |date=August 18, 2004 |website=National Bureau of Investigation |access-date=July 19, 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140726014558/http://www.poliisi.fi/poliisi/krp/home.nsf/PFBD/2465D0FDFBE86B05C2256EEE0048566C?opendocument |archive-date=2014-07-26 }}</ref> Several negative reviews of the book have been published in the scholarly literature. Susan Barnett and [[Wendy M. Williams]] wrote that "we see an edifice built on layer upon layer of arbitrary assumptions and selective [[data manipulation]]. The data on which the entire book is based are of questionable validity and are used in ways that cannot be justified." They also wrote that cross country comparisons are "virtually meaningless."<ref>{{Cite journal | journal=Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books | date=August 2004 | volume = 49 | issue = 4 | pages = 389–396 |last1=Barnett |first1=Susan M. |last2=Williams |first2=Wendy | title = National Intelligence and the Emperor's New Clothes |url= http://psycinfo.apa.org/psyccritiques/display/?uid=2004-17780-001 | archive-url= https://archive.today/20120717135726/http://psycinfo.apa.org/psyccritiques/display/?uid=2004-17780-001 | archive-date=2012-07-17 | doi = 10.1037/004367 }}</ref>
Richardson (2004) argued, citing the [[Flynn effect]] as the best evidence, that Lynn has the causal connection backwards and suggested that "the average IQ of a population is simply an index of the size of its middle class, both of which are results of industrial development". The review concludes that "This is not so much science, then, as a social crusade."<ref name="k.richardson">{{cite journal|first=K.|last=Richardson|title=Book review, IQ and the Wealth of Nations|url=
Richardson (2004) argued, citing the [[Flynn effect]] as the best evidence, that Lynn has the causal connection backwards and suggested that "the average IQ of a population is simply an index of the size of its middle class, both of which are results of industrial development". The review concludes that "This is not so much science, then, as a social crusade."<ref name="k.richardson">{{cite journal|first=K.|last=Richardson|title=Book review, IQ and the Wealth of Nations|url=

Revision as of 04:23, 26 February 2024

Anti-hereditarian bias refers to the taboo on research and hypotheses in the area of human behavior which concern the large role heredity plays in explaining human behavior. Since the beginning of IQ testing around the time of World War I, there have been observed differences between the average scores of different population groups, and there have been debates over whether this is mainly due to environmental and cultural factors, or mainly due to some as yet undiscovered genetic factor, or whether such a dichotomy between environmental and genetic factors is the appropriate framing of the debate.

Examples

The Race and IQ Taboo

Since the beginning of IQ testing around the time of World War I, there have been observed differences between the average scores of different population groups, and there has been manufactured controversy over whether this is mainly due to genetics. In general, old-fashioned common sense is that genetics is the cause, and the data bears this out. However, coinciding with the rise of leftism in Western societies, this has been increasingly denied. Today, the evidence is overwhelming that genetics explain the differences between races in average IQ, but it is extremely taboo to acknowledge this, and the evidence is shamelessly denied by the media and mainstream academics.

Old common sense indicates that race and IQ are genetically linked. In 1785, Thomas Jefferson wrote of his "suspicion" that black people were "inferior to... whites in endowments both of body and mind."[1]

File:Samuel-george-morton.png
Samuel Morton, an American physician, used the study of human skulls to argue for racial differences in intelligence.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the idea that there are differences in the brain structures and brain sizes of different races, and that this implied differences in intelligence, was a popular topic, inspiring numerous typological studies.[2][3][4] Samuel Morton's Crania Americana, published in 1839, was one such study, arguing that intelligence was correlated with brain size and that both of these metrics varied between racial groups.[5]

File:Sir Francis Galton, 1890s.jpg
Francis Galton, an English eugenicist, argued that genius was unevenly distributed among racial groups.

Through the publication of his book Hereditary Genius in 1869, polymath Francis Galton spurred interest in the study of mental abilities, particularly as they relate to heredity and eugenics.[6][7] Galton hypothesized that intelligence was normally distributed in all racial and ethnic groups, and that the means of these distributions varied between the groups. In Galton's estimation, ancient Attic Greeks had been the people with the highest incidence of genius intelligence, followed by contemporary Englishmen, with black Africans at a lower level, and Australian Aborigines lower still.[8]

File:Frederick Douglass ambrotype (1856).jpg
Autodidact and abolitionist Frederick Douglass served as a high-profile counterexample to myths of black intellectual inferiority.

But this was denied by abolitionists. Abolitionists of the 19th century continued to advance the theme of ancient Egypt as a black civilization as an argument against racism. On this basis, scholar and diplomat Alexander Hill Everett argued in his 1927 book America: "With regard to the intellectual capabilities of the African race, it may be observed that Africa was once the nursery of science and literature, and it was from thence that they were disseminated among the Greeks and Romans."[9] Similarly, the philosopher John Stuart Mill posited in his 1849 essay "On the Negro Question" that "it was from Negroes, therefore, that the Greeks learnt their first lessons in civilization."[10][9]

In 1903, the African-American sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois published his landmark collection of essays The Souls of Black Folk in defense of the inherent mental capacity and equal humanity of black people. Du Bois argued that black populations just as much as white ones naturally give rise to what he termed a "talented tenth" of intellectually gifted individuals.[11][12] This is scientifically false, as the IQ of blacks is a standard deviation lower than that of whites.

At the same time, the discourse of scientific racism was accelerating.[13] In 1910 the sociologist Howard W. Odum published his book Mental and Social Traits of the Negro, which described African-American students as "lacking in filial affection, strong migratory instincts, and tendencies; little sense of veneration, integrity or honor; shiftless, indolent, untidy, improvident, extravagant, lazy, lacking in persistence and initiative and unwilling to work continuously at details. Indeed, experience with the Negro in classrooms indicates that it is impossible to get the child to do anything with continued accuracy, and similarly in industrial pursuits, the Negro shows a woeful lack of power of sustained activity and constructive conduct."[14][15]

File:Йеркс.png
Psychologist Robert Yerkes argued that immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe could decrease the average IQ of Americans.

In 1916 a team of psychologists, led by Robert Yerkes and including Terman and Henry H. Goddard, adapted the Stanford-Binet tests as multiple-choice group tests for use by the US army. They found the typical 1 standard deviation gap between blacks and whites, which has never faded since then.

In the 1920s, leftist infiltrators started gaslighting about racial differences in intelligence; although not discounting them, the idea was promoted that they were on a smaller scale than previously supposed and also due to factors other than heredity. In 1929, Robert Woodworth, in his textbook Psychology: A Study of Mental Life,[16] made no claims about innate differences in intelligence between races, pointing instead to environmental and cultural factors. He considered it advisable to "suspend judgment and keep our eyes open from year to year for fresh and more conclusive evidence that will probably be discovered".[17] This was contrary to the previous consensus of all scientists. As leftism increased in the population, increasingly leftist scientists would increasingly ignore more and more evidence on the question, until they eventually tabooed the topic completely.

File:Raymond Cattell.jpg
Raymond Cattell, known for psychometric research into intrapersonal psychological structure, advocated that supposedly inferior races should be euthanized.

In the 1930s, many scientists were still not leftists. The English psychologist Raymond Cattell wrote three tracts, Psychology and Social Progress (1933), The Fight for Our National Intelligence (1937) and Psychology and the Religious Quest (1938). The second was published by the Eugenics Society, of which he had been a research fellow; it predicted the disastrous consequences of not stopping the decline in the average intelligence in Britain by one point per decade. In 1933, Cattell wrote that, of all the European races, the "Nordic race was the most evolved in intelligence and stability of temperament". He argued for "no mixture of bloods between racial groups" because "the resulting re-shuffling of impulses and psychic units throws together in each individual a number of forces which may be incompatible". He rationalised the "hatred and abhorrence ... for the Jewish practice of living in other nations instead of forming an independent self-sustained group of their own", referring to them as "intruders" with a "crafty spirit of calculation". He recommended a rigid division of races, referring to those suggesting that individuals be judged on their merits, irrespective of racial background, as "race-slumpers". He wrote that in the past, "the backward branches of the tree of mankind" had been lopped off as "the American Indians, the Black Australians, the Mauris and the negroes had been driven by bloodshed from their lands", unaware of "the biological rationality of that destiny". He advocated what he saw as a more enlightened solution: by birth control, by sterilization, and by "life in adapted reserves and asylums", where the "races which have served their turn [should] be brought to euthanasia." He considered blacks to be naturally inferior, on account of their supposedly "small skull capacity". In 1937, he praised the Third Reich for their eugenic laws and for "being the first to adopt sterilization together with a policy of racial improvement". In 1938, after newspapers had reported on the segregation of Jews into ghettos and concentration camps, he commented that the rise of Germany "should be welcomed by the religious man as reassuring evidence that in spite of modern wealth and ease, we shall not be allowed ... to adopt foolish social practices in fatal detachment from the stream of evolution". In late 1937, Cattell moved to the US on the invitation of the psychologist Edward Thorndike of Columbia University, also involved in eugenics. He spent the rest of his life there as a research psychologist, devoting himself after retirement to devising and publicising a refined version of his ideology from the 1930s that he called beyondism.[18][19][20]

File:FranzBoas.jpg

In 1935, Otto Klineberg wrote two books, Negro Intelligence and Selective Migration and Race Differences, dismissing claims that African Americans in the northern states were more intelligent than those in the south. He argued that there was no scientific proof of racial differences in intelligence and that this should not therefore be used as a justification for policies in education or employment.[21][22]

The hereditarian standard began to weaken in the 1940s in reaction not to evidence, but to excessive build up of leftists in the sciences and the astroturfing of their fallacious, evidence free environmental arguments.[23] In the 1940s many psychologists, particularly social psychologists, began to argue that environmental and cultural factors, as well as discrimination and prejudice, provided a more probable explanation of disparities in intelligence. According to Franz Samelson, this change in attitude had become widespread by then,[24] with very few studies in race differences in intelligence, a change brought out by an increase in the number of psychologists not from a "lily-white ... Anglo-Saxon" background but from Jewish backgrounds. The 1950 race statement of UNESCO, prepared in consultation with scientists including Klineberg, created a further taboo against conducting scientific research on issues related to race.[25] Ironically, the best evidence suggests that this shift happened due to dysgenics, specifically mutational pressure, which increases leftism by a significant amount.

1960–1980

By the 1960s, leftism had risen to be very common, even in majority, in academia. Protesting this, in 1965 William Shockley, Nobel laureate in physics and professor at Stanford University, made a public statement at the Nobel conference on "Genetics and the Future of Man" about the problems of "genetic deterioration" in humans caused by "evolution in reverse". He claimed social support systems designed to help the disadvantaged had a regressive effect. Shockley subsequently claimed the most competent American population group were the descendants of original European settlers, because of the extreme selective pressures imposed by the harsh conditions of early colonialism.[26] Speaking of the "genetic enslavement" of African Americans, owing to an abnormally high birth rate, Shockley discouraged improved education as a remedy, suggesting instead sterilization and birth control. In the following ten years he continued to argue in favor of this position, claiming it was not based on prejudice but "on sound statistics". Shockley's outspoken public statements and lobbying brought him into contact with those running the Pioneer Fund who subsequently, through the intermediary Carleton Putnam, provided financial support for his extensive lobbying activities in this area, reported widely in the press. With the psychologist and segregationist R. Travis Osborne as adviser, he formed the Foundation for Research and Education on Eugenics and Dysgenics (FREED).

File:Wickliffe Draper.jpg
Wickliffe Draper, founder of the Pioneer Fund

All of these ultimately held academic positions in the Southern states, notably Henry E. Garrett (head of psychology at Columbia University until 1955), Wesley Critz George, Frank C.J. McGurk, R. Travis Osborne and Audrey Shuey, who in 1958 wrote The Testing of Negro Intelligence, demonstrating "the presence of native differences between Negroes and whites as determined by intelligence tests".[27][28][29] In 1959 Garrett helped to found the International Association for the Advancement of Ethnology and Eugenics, an organisation promoting segregation. Early hereditarians did not understand that leftism itself was caused by dysgenics. But they did understand that it was false and related to bad genes in some ways. In 1961 he blamed the shift away from hereditarianism, which he described as the "scientific hoax of the century", on the school of thought –the "Boas cult" – promoted by his former colleagues at Columbia, notably Franz Boas and Otto Klineberg, and more generally "Jewish organizations", most of whom "belligerently support the egalitarian dogma which they accept as having been 'scientifically' proved". He also pointed to Marxist origins in this shift, writing in a pamphlet, Desegregation: Fact and hokum, that: "It is certain that the Communists have aided in the acceptance and spread of egalitarianism although the extent and method of their help is difficult to assess. Egalitarianism is good Marxist doctrine, not likely to change with gyrations in the Kremlin line." In 1951 Garrett had even gone as far as reporting Klineberg to the FBI for advocating "many Communistic theories", including the idea that "there are no differences in the races of mankind".[30][31][32][33][34][35]

One of Shockley's lobbying campaigns involved the educational psychologist, Arthur Jensen, of the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley). Although earlier in his career Jensen had favored environmental rather than genetic factors as the explanation of race differences in intelligence, he had changed his mind during 1966-1967 when he was at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford. Here Jensen met Shockley and through him received support for his research from the Pioneer Fund.[27][36] Although Shockley and Jensen's names were later to become linked in the media,[27][37] Jensen does not mention Shockley as an important influence on his thought in his subsequent writings;[38][39] rather he describes as decisive his work with Hans Eysenck. He also mentions his interest in the behaviorist theories of Clark L. Hull which he says he abandoned largely because he found them to be incompatible with experimental findings during his years at Berkeley.[40]

File:Arthur Jensen Vanderbilt 2002.jpg
Arthur Jensen, professor of educational psychology at UC Berkeley, wrote the 1969 article on intelligence that became one of the most controversial articles in the history of psychology.

In a 1968 article published in Disadvantaged Child, Jensen questioned the effectiveness of child development and antipoverty programs, writing: "As a social policy, avoidance of the issue could be harmful to everyone in the long run, especially to future generations of Negroes, who could suffer the most from well-meaning but misguided and ineffective attempts to improve their lot."[41] In 1969 Jensen wrote a long article in the Harvard Educational Review, "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?"[42]

In his article, 123 pages long, Jensen insisted on the accuracy and lack of bias in intelligence tests, stating that the absolute quantity g that they measured, the general intelligence factor, first introduced by the English psychologist Charles Spearman in 1904, "stood like a Rock of Gibraltar in psychometrics". He stressed the importance of biological considerations in intelligence, commenting that "the belief in the almost infinite plasticity of intellect, the ostrich-like denial of biological factors in individual differences, and the slighting of the role of genetics in the study of intelligence can only hinder investigation and understanding of the conditions, processes, and limits through which the social environment influences human behavior." He argued at length that, contrary to environmentalist orthodoxy, intelligence was partly dependent on the same genetic factors that influence other physical attributes. More controversially, he briefly speculated that the difference in performance at school between blacks and whites might have a partly genetic explanation, commenting that there were "various lines of evidence, no one of which is definitive alone, but which, viewed all together, make it a not unreasonable hypothesis that genetic factors are strongly implicated in the average Negro-white intelligence difference. The preponderance of the evidence is, in my opinion, less consistent with a strictly environmental hypothesis than with a genetic hypothesis, which, of course, does not exclude the influence of environment or its interaction with genetic factors."[43][44] He advocated the allocation of educational resources according to merit and insisted on the close correlation between intelligence and occupational status, arguing that "in a society that values and rewards individual talent and merit, genetic factors inevitably take on considerable importance." Concerned that the average IQ in the US was inadequate to answer the increasing needs of an industrialised society, he predicted that people with lower IQs would become unemployable while at the same time there would be an insufficient number with higher IQs to fill professional posts. He felt that eugenic reform would prevent this more effectively than compensatory education, surmising that "the technique for raising intelligence per se in the sense of g, probably lie more in the province of biological science than in psychology or education". He pointed out that intelligence and family size were inversely correlated, particularly amongst the black population, so that the current trend in average national intelligence was dysgenic rather than eugenic. As he wrote, "Is there a danger that current welfare policies, unaided by eugenic foresight, could lead to the genetic enslavement of a substantial segment of our population? The fuller consequences of our failure seriously to study these questions may well be judged by future generations as our society's greatest injustice to Negro Americans." He concluded by emphasizing the importance of child-centered education. Although a tradition had developed for the exclusive use of cognitive learning in schools, Jensen argued that it was not suited to "these children's genetic and cultural heritage": although capable of associative learning and memorization ("Level I" ability), they had difficulties with abstract conceptual reasoning ("Level II" ability). He felt that in these circumstances the success of education depended on exploiting "the actual potential learning that is latent in these children's patterns of abilities". He suggested that, in order to ensure equality of opportunity, "schools and society must provide a range and diversity of educational methods, programs and goals, and of occupational opportunities, just as wide as the range of human abilities."[45][46][47]

File:Hans.Eysenck.jpg
Hans Eysenck, professor of psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry and Jensen's mentor, whose work has been largely discredited.[48][49][50]

Jensen's article was widely criticized despite its lack of empirical faults. Criticisms were ideological in nature, and after a short time, the conclusions of the article were buried and ignored. Throughout his life, Jensen endured harassment for the article from students and academics.

1980–present

In 2002, Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen, published IQ and the Wealth of Nations.[51] Vanhanen claimed "Whereas the average IQ of Finns is 97, in Africa it is between 60 and 70. Differences in intelligence are the most significant factor in explaining poverty." A complaint by Finland's "Ombudsman for Minorities", Mikko Puumalainen, resulted in Vanhanen being considered to be investigated for incitement of "racial hatred" by the Finnish National Bureau of Investigations.[52] In 2004, the police stated they found no reason to suspect he incited racial hatred and decided not to launch an investigation.[53] Several negative reviews of the book have been published in the scholarly literature. Susan Barnett and Wendy M. Williams wrote that "we see an edifice built on layer upon layer of arbitrary assumptions and selective data manipulation. The data on which the entire book is based are of questionable validity and are used in ways that cannot be justified." They also wrote that cross country comparisons are "virtually meaningless."[54] Richardson (2004) argued, citing the Flynn effect as the best evidence, that Lynn has the causal connection backwards and suggested that "the average IQ of a population is simply an index of the size of its middle class, both of which are results of industrial development". The review concludes that "This is not so much science, then, as a social crusade."[55] A review by Michael Palairet criticized the book's methodology, particularly the imprecise estimates of GDP and the fact that IQ data were only available for 81 of the 185 countries studied.[56] Kamin (2006) has also criticized Lynn and Vanhanen's work on methodological grounds.[57] On July 27, 2020, the European Human Behavior and Evolution Association issued a formal statement opposing the utilization of Lynn's national IQ dataset, citing various methodological concerns. They concluded "Any conclusions drawn from analyses which use these data are therefore unsound, and no reliable evolutionary work should be using these data."[58]

In 2005 the journal Psychology, Public Policy and Law of the American Psychological Association (APA) published a review article by Rushton and Jensen, "Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability".[59] The article was followed by a series of responses, some in support, some critical.[60][61][62] Psychologist Richard Nisbett later included an amplified version of his critique as part of the book Intelligence and How to Get It: Why Schools and Cultures Count (2009).[63] Rushton and Jensen in 2010 made a point-for-point reply to this and again summarized the hereditarian position in "Race and IQ: A theory-based review of the research in Richard Nisbett's Intelligence and How to Get It".[64]

In 2006, a systematic analysis by James Flynn and William Dickens showed the gap between black and white Americans to have closed dramatically during the period between 1972 and 2002, suggesting that, in their words, the "constancy of the Black-White IQ gap is a myth."[65] They argued that their results refute the possibility of a genetic origin, concluding that "the environment has been responsible" for observed differences.[65] A subsequent review led by Richard Nisbett and co-authored by Flynn, published in 2012, reached a similar conclusion, stating that the weight of evidence presented in all prior research literature shows that group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin.[66]

On the other hand, a 2007 meta-analysis by Rindermann found many of the same groupings and correlations found by Lynn and Vanhanen, with the lowest scores in sub-Saharan Africa, and a correlation of .60 between cognitive skill and GDP per capita. By measuring the relationship between educational data and social well-being over time, this study also performed a causal analysis, finding that nations investing in education leads to increased well-being later on.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. Template:Harvtxt considers Rindermann's analysis to be much more reliable than Lynn and Vanhanen's. However, a 2017 systematic review notes that other researchers have dismissed Rindermann's findings on the basis that "the meaning of variables shifts when you aggregate to different levels; a conceptual, methodological point that is well-established in the field of multi-level modelling."[67] In particular, James Flynn writes that "Rindermann's results suggest that different factors lie behind the emergence of g in international comparisons and the emergence of g when we compare the differential performance of individuals. This renders g(l) and g(ID) so unlike that they have little significance in common."[68] Similarly, Martin Brunner and Romain Martin argue that Rindermann's identification of "a common factor underlying measures of intelligence and student achievement on the cross-national level" is methodologically flawed, stating that given "the level of analysis applied . . . this factor cannot be interpreted as general cognitive ability (g). Rather it is an indicator of a nation's prosperity."[69]

In 2007, James D. Watson, Nobel laureate in biology, gave a controversial interview to the Sunday Times Magazine during a book tour in the United Kingdom. Watson stated he was "inherently gloomy about the prospect of Africa" because "all our social policies are based on the fact that their intelligence is the same as ours – whereas all the testing says not really." He also wrote that "there is no firm reason to anticipate that the intellectual capacities of peoples geographically separated in their evolution should prove to have evolved identically. Our wanting to reserve equal powers of reason as some universal heritage of humanity will not be enough to make it so." This resulted in the cancellation of a Royal Society lecture, along with other public engagements, and his suspension from his administrative duties at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. He subsequently cancelled the tour and resigned from his position at CSHL, where he had served as either director, president or chancellor since 1968. However, Watson was later appointed chancellor emeritus of CSHL, and, as of 2009, he continued to advise and guide project work at the laboratory.[70]

A 2009 debate in the journal Nature on the question "Should scientists study race and IQ?" involved position papers by Stephen Ceci and Wendy M. Williams arguing "yes" and Steven Rose arguing "no". It is notable that both sides agreed that, as Ceci and Williams put it, "There is an emerging consensus about racial and gender equality in genetic determinants of intelligence; most researchers, including ourselves, agree that genes do not explain between-group differences."[71] Subsequent editorials in Nature have affirmed this view, for example the 2017 statement by the editorial board that "the (genuine but closing) gap between the average IQ scores of groups of black and white people in the United States has been falsely attributed to genetic differences between the races."[72]

In a meta-analysis of studies of IQ estimates in Sub-Saharan Africa, Template:Harvtxt concluded that Lynn and Vanhanen had relied on unsystematic methodology by failing to publish their criteria for including or excluding studies. They found that Lynn and Vanhanen's exclusion of studies had depressed their IQ estimate for sub-Saharan Africa, and that including studies excluded in IQ and Global Inequality resulted in average IQ of 82 for sub-Saharan Africa, lower than the average in Western countries, but higher than Lynn and Vanhanen's estimate of 67. Wicherts at al. conclude that this difference is likely due to sub-Saharan Africa having limited access to modern advances in education, nutrition and health care.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. A 2010 systematic review by the same research team, along with Jerry S. Carlson, found that compared to American norms, the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans was about 80. The same review concluded that the Flynn effect had not yet taken hold in sub-Saharan Africa.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found.

Wicherts, Borsboom, and Dolan (2010) argued that studies reporting support for evolutionary theories of intelligence based on national IQ data suffer from multiple fatal methodological flaws. For example, they state that such studies "... assume that the Flynn Effect is either nonexistent or invariant with respect to different regions of the world, that there have been no migrations and climatic changes over the course of evolution, and that there have been no trends over the last century in indicators of reproductive strategies (e.g., declines in fertility and infant mortality)." They also showed that a strong degree of confounding exists between national IQs and current national development status.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. Similarly, Pesta & Poznanski (2014) showed that the average temperature of a given US state is strongly associated with that state's average IQ and other well-being variables, despite the fact that evolution has not had enough time to operate on non-Native American residents of the United States. They also noted that this association persisted even after controlling for race, and concluded that "Evolution is therefore not necessary for temperature and IQ/well-being to co-vary meaningfully across geographic space."Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found.

In 2016, Template:Harvtxt attempted to replicate the findings of Template:Harvtxt by surveying 71 self-identified psychology experts on the causes of international differences in cognitive test scores; only 20% of those invited participated. They found that the experts surveyed ranked education as the most important factor of these differences, with genetics in second place (accounting on average for 15% of the gap, with high variability in estimates among experts) and health, wealth, geography, climate, and politics as the next most important factors. About 90% of experts in the survey believed there was a genetic component to international IQ gaps. The authors emphasized, however, that their study serves as an "opinion instrument" rather than "an indicator of truth." Notably, the study relied on "self-selection of experts," which the authors acknowledge as a limitation, and focused on self-identified experts in psychology rather than genetics.

In 2018, in response to a resurgence of public controversy over race and intelligence, the geneticist and neuroscientist Kevin Mitchell made a statement in The Guardian that described the idea of genetic IQ differences between races as "inherently and deeply implausible" because it goes against basic principles of population genetics. There he argued, "To end up with systematic genetic differences in intelligence between large, ancient populations, the selective forces driving those differences would need to have been enormous. What's more, those forces would have to have acted across entire continents, with wildly different environments, and have been persistent over tens of thousands of years of tremendous cultural change." Mitchell concluded that, "While genetic variation may help to explain why one person is more intelligent than another, there are unlikely to be stable and systematic genetic differences that make one population more intelligent than the next."[73]

See also

Notes

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  1. ↑ Walker, Clarence E. (2001). We Can't Go Home Again: An Argument About Afrocentrism. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 0-19-535730-2.
  2. ↑ Morton, Samuel George (1839), Crania Americana; or, A Comparative View of the Skulls of Various Aboriginal Nations of North and South America: To which is Prefixed An Essay on the Varieties of the Human Species, Philadelphia: J. Dobson
  3. ↑ Bean, Robert Bennett (1906), "Some racial peculiarities of the Negro brain" (PDF), American Journal of Anatomy, 5 (4): 353–432, doi:10.1002/aja.1000050402, hdl:2027.42/49594
  4. ↑ Mall, F. P. (1909), "On several anatomical characters of the human brain, said to vary according to race and sex, with especial reference to the weight of the frontal lobe", American Journal of Anatomy, 9: 1–32, doi:10.1002/aja.1000090102
  5. ↑ Fish 2002, p. 159, Chapter 6, "Science and the idea of race", by Audrey Smedley
  6. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  7. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  8. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Template:Cite book
  10. ↑ {{#if:Hall |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Hall |Hall{{#if: Joshua M. |, Joshua M. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Hall |Hall{{#if: Joshua M. |, Joshua M. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Hall |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:November 2014 | (November 2014) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Hall | . }}{{#if:HallNovember 2014 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276310425 |Questions of Race in J. S. Mill's Contributions to Logic |Questions of Race in J. S. Mill's Contributions to Logic }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Philosophia Africana |. Philosophia Africana }}{{#if:16 | 16 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:73–94 |: 73–94 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.5840/philafricana20141626 |. doi:10.5840/philafricana20141626 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  11. ↑ Template:Cite book
  12. ↑ Template:Cite news
  13. ↑ Template:Cite news
  14. ↑ Template:Cite book
  15. ↑ Template:Citation
  16. ↑ Template:Citation Reprint of 1929 textbook.
  17. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  18. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  19. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  20. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  21. ↑ Template:Citation
  22. ↑ Template:Citation
  23. ↑ A history of Modern Psychology in Context, Wade E. Pickren and Alexandra Rutherford, Wiley, 2010, page 163
  24. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  25. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  26. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Template:Harvnb
  28. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  29. ↑ Template:Harvnb The official history of the Pioneer Fund written by a board member.
  30. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  31. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  32. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  33. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  34. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  35. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  36. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  37. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  38. ↑ Roger Pearson's 1992 book "Shockley on Race and Eugenics" contains a foreword by Jensen, giving a lengthy assessment of Shockley
  39. ↑ In Template:Harvnb, Jensen is reported as saying that Shockley's main contribution was to distract opponents and that "I have always been amazed that someone as bright as he could have contributed so little over so long a span of time".
  40. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:1998 | (1998) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:1998 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Jensen on "Jensenism"] |Jensen on "Jensenism" }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Intelligence |. Intelligence }}{{#if:26 | 26 }}{{#if:3 | (3) }}{{#if:181–208 |: 181–208 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)80002-6 |. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)80002-6 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  41. ↑ See:
  42. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  43. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  44. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  45. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  46. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  47. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  48. ↑ Template:Cite magazine
  49. ↑ Template:Cite web
  50. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2019-12-16 | (2019-12-16) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2019-12-16 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} King's College London's enquiry into Hans J Eysenck's 'Unsafe' publications must be properly completed] |King's College London's enquiry into Hans J Eysenck's 'Unsafe' publications must be properly completed }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en-US | (in en-US) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Journal of Health Psychology |. Journal of Health Psychology }}{{#if:25 | 25 }}{{#if:1 | (1) }}{{#if:3–6 |: 3–6 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1177/1359105319887791 |. doi:10.1177/1359105319887791 }}{{#if:1359-1053 |. ISSN 1359-1053 }}{{#if:31841048 |. PMID 31841048 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  51. ↑ Lynn, R. and Vanhanen, T. (2002). IQ and the wealth of nations. Westport, CT: Praeger. Template:ISBN
  52. ↑ Comments in interview could bring charges of inciting racism against PM Vanhanen's father Helsingin Sanomat, August 12, 2004
  53. ↑ Template:Cite web
  54. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:August 2004 | (August 2004) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:August 2004 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://psycinfo.apa.org/psyccritiques/display/?uid=2004-17780-001 |National Intelligence and the Emperor's New Clothes |National Intelligence and the Emperor's New Clothes }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books |. Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books }}{{#if:49 | 49 }}{{#if:4 | (4) }}{{#if:389–396 |: 389–396 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/004367 |. doi:10.1037/004367 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  55. ↑ {{#if:Richardson |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Richardson |Richardson{{#if: K. |, K. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Richardson |Richardson{{#if: K. |, K. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Richardson |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2004 |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2004) | (2004) }} }} }}{{#if:Richardson | . }}{{#if:Richardson2004 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:https://www.nature.com/articles/6800418.pdf |Book review, IQ and the Wealth of Nations |Book review, IQ and the Wealth of Nations }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Heredity |. Heredity }}{{#if:92 | 92 }}{{#if:4 | (4) }}{{#if:359–360 |: 359–360 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800418 |. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800418 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  56. ↑ {{#if:Palairet |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Palairet |Palairet{{#if: M. R. |, M. R. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Palairet |Palairet{{#if: M. R. |, M. R. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Palairet |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2004 | (2004) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Palairet | . }}{{#if:Palairet2004 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Book review, IQ and the Wealth of Nations] |Book review, IQ and the Wealth of Nations }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Heredity |. Heredity }}{{#if:92 | 92 }}{{#if:4 | (4) }}{{#if:361–362 |: 361–362 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800427 |. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800427 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  57. ↑ {{#if:Kamin |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Kamin |Kamin{{#if: Leon J. |, Leon J. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Kamin |Kamin{{#if: Leon J. |, Leon J. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Kamin |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2006-03-01 | (2006-03-01) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Kamin | . }}{{#if:Kamin2006-03-01 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} African IQ and Mental Retardation] |African IQ and Mental Retardation }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:South African Journal of Psychology |. South African Journal of Psychology }}{{#if:36 | 36 }}{{#if:1 | (1) }}{{#if:1–9 |: 1–9 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1177/008124630603600101 |. doi:10.1177/008124630603600101 }}{{#if:0081-2463 |. ISSN 0081-2463 }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  58. ↑ Template:Cite web
  59. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  60. ↑ {{#if:Gottfredson |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Gottfredson |Gottfredson{{#if: Linda S. |, Linda S. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Gottfredson |Gottfredson{{#if: Linda S. |, Linda S. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Gottfredson |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2005 | (2005) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Gottfredson | . }}{{#if:Gottfredson2005 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true?] |What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Psychology, Public Policy, and Law |. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law }}{{#if:11 | 11 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:311–319 |: 311–319 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.311 |. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.311 }}{{#if:1076-8971 |. ISSN 1076-8971 }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  61. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2005 | (2005) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2005 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} The cultural malleability of intelligence and its impact on the racial/ethnic hierarchy.] |The cultural malleability of intelligence and its impact on the racial/ethnic hierarchy. }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Psychology, Public Policy, and Law |. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law }}{{#if:11 | 11 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:320–327 |: 320–327 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.320 |. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.320 }}{{#if:1076-8971 |. ISSN 1076-8971 }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  62. ↑ Template:Cite book
  63. ↑ Template:Cite book
  64. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2010 | (2010) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2010 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Race and IQ: A theory-based review of the research in Richard Nisbett's Intelligence and How to Get It] |Race and IQ: A theory-based review of the research in Richard Nisbett's Intelligence and How to Get It }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:The Open Psychology Journal |. The Open Psychology Journal }}{{#if:3 | 3 }}{{#if:1 | (1) }}{{#if:9–35 |: 9–35 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.2174/1874350101003010009 |. doi:10.2174/1874350101003010009 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2006 | (2006) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2006 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/dickens2006a.pdf |Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence from Standardization Samples |Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence from Standardization Samples }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Psychological Science |. Psychological Science }}{{#if:17 | 17 }}{{#if:10 | (10) }}{{#if:913–920 |: 913–920 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x |. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if:17100793 |. PMID 17100793 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  66. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2012 | (2012) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2012 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Nisbett%20(2012)%20Group.pdf |Group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin |Group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:American Psychologist |. American Psychologist }}{{#if:67 | 67 }}{{#if: | ({{{issue}}}) }}{{#if:503–504 |: 503–504 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/a0029772 |. doi:10.1037/a0029772 }}{{#if:0003-066X |. ISSN 0003-066X }}{{#if:22963427 |. PMID 22963427 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  67. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:30 Jan 2017 | (30 Jan 2017) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:30 Jan 2017 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Lessons Learned from PISA: A Systematic Review of Peer-Reviewed Articles on the Programme for International Student Assessment] |Lessons Learned from PISA: A Systematic Review of Peer-Reviewed Articles on the Programme for International Student Assessment }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research |. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research }}{{#if:62 | 62 }}{{#if:3 | (3) }}{{#if:333–353 |: 333–353 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1080/00313831.2016.1258726 |. doi:10.1080/00313831.2016.1258726 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  68. ↑ {{#if:Flynn |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Flynn |Flynn{{#if: James |, James }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Flynn |Flynn{{#if: James |, James }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Flynn |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:August 2007 | (August 2007) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Flynn | . }}{{#if:FlynnAugust 2007 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://cel.webofknowledge.com/InboundService.do?customersID=atyponcel&smartRedirect=yes&mode=FullRecord&IsProductCode=Yes&product=CEL&Init=Yes&Func=Frame&action=retrieve&SrcApp=literatum&SrcAuth=atyponcel&SID=8CQpB1m5YM1221P52bl&UT=WOS%3A000250134400034 |What lies behind g(I) and g(ID) |What lies behind g(I) and g(ID) }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:European Journal of Personality |. European Journal of Personality }}{{#if:21 | 21 }}{{#if:5 | (5) }}{{#if:722–724 |: 722–724 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if: |. doi:{{{doi}}} }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  69. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:August 2007 | (August 2007) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:August 2007 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://cel.webofknowledge.com/InboundService.do?customersID=atyponcel&smartRedirect=yes&mode=FullRecord&IsProductCode=Yes&product=CEL&Init=Yes&Func=Frame&action=retrieve&SrcApp=literatum&SrcAuth=atyponcel&SID=8BIExvR95nOzxbIhpTh&UT=WOS%3A000250134400030 |Not Every g is g |Not Every g is g }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:European Journal of Personality |. European Journal of Personality }}{{#if:21 | 21 }}{{#if:5 | (5) }}{{#if:714–716 |: 714–716 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if: |. doi:{{{doi}}} }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  70. ↑ See: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Watson |Watson{{#if: James |, James }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Watson |Watson{{#if: James |, James }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Watson |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:September–October 2007 | (September–October 2007) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Watson | . }}{{#if:WatsonSeptember–October 2007 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://www.02138mag.com/magazine/article/1488-3.html |Blinded by Science. An exclusive excerpt from Watson's new memoir, Avoid Boring People: Lessons from a Life in Science. |Blinded by Science. An exclusive excerpt from Watson's new memoir, Avoid Boring People: Lessons from a Life in Science. }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:02138 Magazine |. 02138 Magazine }}{{#if: | {{{volume}}} }}{{#if: | ({{{issue}}}) }}{{#if: |: {{{pages}}} }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if: |. doi:{{{doi}}} }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if:As we find the human genes whose malfunctioning gives rise to such devastating developmental failures, we may well discover that sequence differences within many of them also lead to much of the observable variation in human IQs. A priori, there is no firm reason to anticipate that the intellectual capacities of peoples geographically separated in their evolution should prove to have evolved identically. Our desire to reserve equal powers of reason as some universal heritage of humanity will not be enough to make it so. | “As we find the human genes whose malfunctioning gives rise to such devastating developmental failures, we may well discover that sequence differences within many of them also lead to much of the observable variation in human IQs. A priori, there is no firm reason to anticipate that the intellectual capacities of peoples geographically separated in their evolution should prove to have evolved identically. Our desire to reserve equal powers of reason as some universal heritage of humanity will not be enough to make it so.” }}
  71. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:1 February 2009 | (1 February 2009) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:1 February 2009 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Should scientists study race and IQ? YES: The scientific truth must be pursued] |Should scientists study race and IQ? YES: The scientific truth must be pursued }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Nature |. Nature }}{{#if:457 | 457 }}{{#if:7231 | (7231) }}{{#if:788–789 |: 788–789 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1038/457788a |. doi:10.1038/457788a }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if:19212385 |. PMID 19212385 }}{{#if:2009Natur.457..788C |. Bibcode: 2009Natur.457..788C }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if:There is an emerging consensus about racial and gender equality in genetic determinants of intelligence; most researchers, including ourselves, agree that genes do not explain between-group differences. | “There is an emerging consensus about racial and gender equality in genetic determinants of intelligence; most researchers, including ourselves, agree that genes do not explain between-group differences.” }}
  72. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:22 May 2017 | (22 May 2017) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:22 May 2017 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Intelligence research should not be held back by its past] |Intelligence research should not be held back by its past }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Nature |. Nature }}{{#if:545 | 545 }}{{#if:7655 | (7655) }}{{#if:385–386 |: 385–386 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1038/nature.2017.22021 |. doi:10.1038/nature.2017.22021 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if:28541341 |. PMID 28541341 }}{{#if:2017Natur.545R.385. |. Bibcode: 2017Natur.545R.385. }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if:Historical measurements of skull volume and brain weight were done to advance claims of the racial superiority of white people. More recently, the (genuine but closing) gap between the average IQ scores of groups of black and white people in the United States has been falsely attributed to genetic differences between the races. | “Historical measurements of skull volume and brain weight were done to advance claims of the racial superiority of white people. More recently, the (genuine but closing) gap between the average IQ scores of groups of black and white people in the United States has been falsely attributed to genetic differences between the races.” }}
  73. ↑ Template:Cite news

References

Further reading

External links

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