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Race is one of the correlates of crime receiving attention in academic studies, government surveys, media coverage, and public concern. Research has found that social status, poverty, and childhood exposure to violent behavior are causes of the racial disparities in crime. Research conducted in Europe and the United States on the matter has been widely published, particularly in relation to discrimination by criminal justice systems.

Discrimination by the criminal justice system in Europe

Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects in Sweden, Italy, and England and Wales. According to the Racial Disparity Audit conducted by the United Kingdom Prime Minister, in 2017 minorities living in Wales and England were more than 3.5 times more likely to be arrested than whites. Likewise, this same group was far more likely to be the victims of crime with their white counterparts only having 15 percent likelihood.[1][2][3][4][5][6]Template:Citation overkill Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities in Sweden, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Denmark and France.[2][4][5][7][8][9][10]Template:Citation overkill

Discrimination by the criminal justice system in the United States

Template:Main Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects.[11][12][13][14]Template:Citation overkill Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities.[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]Template:Citation overkill On average, white offenders are less likely to be arrested for their crime than non-white offenders. [23]

See also

References

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  1. ↑ Template:Cite web
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Template:Cite web
  3. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2013-05-01 | (2013-05-01) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2013-05-01 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Crime as a Price of Inequality? The Gap in Registered Crime between Childhood Immigrants, Children of Immigrants and Children of Native Swedes] |Crime as a Price of Inequality? The Gap in Registered Crime between Childhood Immigrants, Children of Immigrants and Children of Native Swedes }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:British Journal of Criminology |. British Journal of Criminology }}{{#if:53 | 53 }}{{#if:3 | (3) }}{{#if:456–481 |: 456–481 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1093/bjc/azt005 |. doi:10.1093/bjc/azt005 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Template:Cite book
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 {{#if:Colombo |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Colombo |Colombo{{#if: Asher |, Asher }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Colombo |Colombo{{#if: Asher |, Asher }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Colombo |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2013-11-01 | (2013-11-01) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Colombo | . }}{{#if:Colombo2013-11-01 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Foreigners and immigrants in Italy's penal and administrative detention systems] |Foreigners and immigrants in Italy's penal and administrative detention systems }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:European Journal of Criminology |. European Journal of Criminology }}{{#if:10 | 10 }}{{#if:6 | (6) }}{{#if:746–759 |: 746–759 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1177/1477370813495128 |. doi:10.1177/1477370813495128 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  6. ↑ Template:Cite book
  7. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2003 |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2003) | (2003) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2003 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Are Immigrants and Their Descendants Discriminated against in the Danish Criminal Justice System?] |Are Immigrants and Their Descendants Discriminated against in the Danish Criminal Justice System? }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention |. Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention }}{{#if:4 | 4 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:125–142 |: 125–142 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1080/14043850310020027 |. doi:10.1080/14043850310020027 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  8. ↑ Template:Cite book
  9. ↑ {{#if:Light |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Light |Light{{#if: Michael T. |, Michael T. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Light |Light{{#if: Michael T. |, Michael T. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Light |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2016-03-01 | (2016-03-01) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Light | . }}{{#if:Light2016-03-01 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} The Punishment Consequences of Lacking National Membership in Germany, 1998–2010] |The Punishment Consequences of Lacking National Membership in Germany, 1998–2010 }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Social Forces |. Social Forces }}{{#if:94 | 94 }}{{#if:3 | (3) }}{{#if:1385–1408 |: 1385–1408 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1093/sf/sov084 |. doi:10.1093/sf/sov084 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  10. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2015-11-01 | (2015-11-01) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2015-11-01 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Expanding the scope of sentencing research: Determinants of juvenile and adult punishment in the Netherlands] |Expanding the scope of sentencing research: Determinants of juvenile and adult punishment in the Netherlands }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:European Journal of Criminology |. European Journal of Criminology }}{{#if:12 | 12 }}{{#if:6 | (6) }}{{#if:739–768 |: 739–768 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1177/1477370815597253 |. doi:10.1177/1477370815597253 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  11. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2009-05-01 | (2009-05-01) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2009-05-01 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior?] |Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior? }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Criminology & Public Policy |. Criminology & Public Policy }}{{#if:8 | 8 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:343–369 |: 343–369 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00556.x |. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00556.x }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  12. ↑ Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2008/09, p. 8., 22
  13. ↑ {{#if:West |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: West |West{{#if: Jeremy |, Jeremy }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:West |West{{#if: Jeremy |, Jeremy }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:West |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:February 2018 | (February 2018) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:West | . }}{{#if:WestFebruary 2018 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:https://people.ucsc.edu/~jwest1/articles/West_RacialBiasPolice.pdf |Racial Bias in Police Investigations |Racial Bias in Police Investigations }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Working Paper |. Working Paper }}{{#if: | {{{volume}}} }}{{#if: | ({{{issue}}}) }}{{#if: |: {{{pages}}} }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if: |. doi:{{{doi}}} }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  14. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2001-01-01 | (2001-01-01) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2001-01-01 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests] |The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:The Journal of Law & Economics |. The Journal of Law & Economics }}{{#if:44 | 44 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:367–394 |: 367–394 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1086/322810 |. doi:10.1086/322810 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  15. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2012-06-01 | (2012-06-01) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2012-06-01 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/faculty_scholarship/355 |Do Judges Vary in Their Treatment of Race? |Do Judges Vary in Their Treatment of Race? }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:The Journal of Legal Studies |. The Journal of Legal Studies }}{{#if:41 | 41 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:347–383 |: 347–383 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1086/666006 |. doi:10.1086/666006 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  16. ↑ {{#if:Mustard |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Mustard |Mustard{{#if: David B. |, David B. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Mustard |Mustard{{#if: David B. |, David B. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Mustard |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2001 | (2001) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Mustard | . }}{{#if:Mustard2001 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities in Sentencing: Evidence from the U.S. Federal Courts] |Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities in Sentencing: Evidence from the U.S. Federal Courts }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:The Journal of Law and Economics |. The Journal of Law and Economics }}{{#if:44 | 44 }}{{#if:1 | (1) }}{{#if:285–314 |: 285–314 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1086/320276 |. doi:10.1086/320276 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  17. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2012-05-01 | (2012-05-01) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2012-05-01 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} The Impact of Jury Race in Criminal Trials] |The Impact of Jury Race in Criminal Trials }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:The Quarterly Journal of Economics |. The Quarterly Journal of Economics }}{{#if:127 | 127 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:1017–1055 |: 1017–1055 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1093/qje/qjs014 |. doi:10.1093/qje/qjs014 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  18. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:1999-02-01 | (1999-02-01) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:1999-02-01 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Effects of Defendant Ethnicity on Juries' Dispositions of Felony Cases] |Effects of Defendant Ethnicity on Juries' Dispositions of Felony Cases }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Journal of Applied Social Psychology |. Journal of Applied Social Psychology }}{{#if:29 | 29 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:317–336 |: 317–336 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb01389.x |. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb01389.x }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  19. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2017 |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2017) | (2017) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2017 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://www.nber.org/papers/w22003.pdf |Judges, Juveniles, and In-Group Bias |Judges, Juveniles, and In-Group Bias }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Journal of Law and Economics |. Journal of Law and Economics }}{{#if:60 | 60 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:209–239 |: 209–239 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1086/693822 |. doi:10.1086/693822 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  20. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:May 2017 | (May 2017) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:May 2017 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Racial Bias in Bail Decisions] |Racial Bias in Bail Decisions }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:NBER Working Paper No. 23421 |. NBER Working Paper No. 23421 }}{{#if: | {{{volume}}} }}{{#if: | ({{{issue}}}) }}{{#if: |: {{{pages}}} }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.3386/w23421 |. doi:10.3386/w23421 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  21. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2014 | (2014) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2014 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2413&context=articles |Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences |Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Journal of Political Economy |. Journal of Political Economy }}{{#if:122 | 122 }}{{#if:6 | (6) }}{{#if:1320–1354 |: 1320–1354 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1086/677255 |. doi:10.1086/677255 }}{{#if:0022-3808 |. ISSN 0022-3808 }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  22. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2019 | (2019) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2019 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Judicial Politics and Sentencing Decisions] |Judicial Politics and Sentencing Decisions }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:American Economic Journal: Economic Policy |. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy }}{{#if:11 | 11 }}{{#if:1 | (1) }}{{#if:160–91 |: 160–91 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1257/pol.20170329 |. doi:10.1257/pol.20170329 }}{{#if:1945-7731 |. ISSN 1945-7731 }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  23. ↑ Template:Cite web

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