Anti-hereditarian bias

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Anti-hereditarian bias refers to the taboo on research and hypotheses in the area of human behavior which concern the large role heredity plays in explaining human behavior. Since the beginning of IQ testing around the time of World War I, there have been observed differences between the average scores of different population groups, and there have been debates over whether this is mainly due to environmental and cultural factors, or mainly due to some as yet undiscovered genetic factor, or whether such a dichotomy between environmental and genetic factors is the appropriate framing of the debate.

Examples

The Race and IQ Taboo

Since the beginning of IQ testing around the time of World War I, there have been observed differences between the average scores of different population groups, and there has been manufactured controversy over whether this is mainly due to genetics. In general, old-fashioned common sense is that genetics is the cause, and the data bears this out. However, coinciding with the rise of leftism in Western societies, this has been increasingly denied. Today, the evidence is overwhelming that genetics explain the differences between races in average IQ, but it is extremely taboo to acknowledge this, and the evidence is shamelessly denied by the media and mainstream academics.

Old common sense indicates that race and IQ are genetically linked. In 1785, Thomas Jefferson wrote of his "suspicion" that black people were "inferior to... whites in endowments both of body and mind."[1]

File:Samuel-george-morton.png
Samuel Morton, an American physician, used the study of human skulls to argue for racial differences in intelligence.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the idea that there are differences in the brain structures and brain sizes of different races, and that this implied differences in intelligence, was a popular topic, inspiring numerous typological studies.[2][3][4] Samuel Morton's Crania Americana, published in 1839, was one such study, arguing that intelligence was correlated with brain size and that both of these metrics varied between racial groups.[5]

File:Sir Francis Galton, 1890s.jpg
Francis Galton, an English eugenicist, argued that genius was unevenly distributed among racial groups.

Through the publication of his book Hereditary Genius in 1869, polymath Francis Galton spurred interest in the study of mental abilities, particularly as they relate to heredity and eugenics.[6][7] Galton hypothesized that intelligence was normally distributed in all racial and ethnic groups, and that the means of these distributions varied between the groups. In Galton's estimation, ancient Attic Greeks had been the people with the highest incidence of genius intelligence, followed by contemporary Englishmen, with black Africans at a lower level, and Australian Aborigines lower still.[8]

File:Frederick Douglass ambrotype (1856).jpg
Autodidact and abolitionist Frederick Douglass served as a high-profile counterexample to myths of black intellectual inferiority.

But this was denied by abolitionists. Abolitionists of the 19th century continued to advance the theme of ancient Egypt as a black civilization as an argument against racism. On this basis, scholar and diplomat Alexander Hill Everett argued in his 1927 book America: "With regard to the intellectual capabilities of the African race, it may be observed that Africa was once the nursery of science and literature, and it was from thence that they were disseminated among the Greeks and Romans."[9] Similarly, the philosopher John Stuart Mill posited in his 1849 essay "On the Negro Question" that "it was from Negroes, therefore, that the Greeks learnt their first lessons in civilization."[10][9]

In 1903, the African-American sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois published his landmark collection of essays The Souls of Black Folk in defense of the inherent mental capacity and equal humanity of black people. Du Bois argued that black populations just as much as white ones naturally give rise to what he termed a "talented tenth" of intellectually gifted individuals.[11][12] This is scientifically false, as the IQ of blacks is a standard deviation lower than that of whites.

At the same time, the discourse of scientific racism was accelerating.[13] In 1910 the sociologist Howard W. Odum published his book Mental and Social Traits of the Negro, which described African-American students as "lacking in filial affection, strong migratory instincts, and tendencies; little sense of veneration, integrity or honor; shiftless, indolent, untidy, improvident, extravagant, lazy, lacking in persistence and initiative and unwilling to work continuously at details. Indeed, experience with the Negro in classrooms indicates that it is impossible to get the child to do anything with continued accuracy, and similarly in industrial pursuits, the Negro shows a woeful lack of power of sustained activity and constructive conduct."[14][15]

File:Йеркс.png
Psychologist Robert Yerkes argued that immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe could decrease the average IQ of Americans.

In 1916 a team of psychologists, led by Robert Yerkes and including Terman and Henry H. Goddard, adapted the Stanford-Binet tests as multiple-choice group tests for use by the US army. They found the typical 1 standard deviation gap between blacks and whites, which has never faded since then.

In the 1920s, leftist infiltrators started gaslighting about racial differences in intelligence; although not discounting them, the idea was promoted that they were on a smaller scale than previously supposed and also due to factors other than heredity. In 1929, Robert Woodworth, in his textbook Psychology: A Study of Mental Life,[16] made no claims about innate differences in intelligence between races, pointing instead to environmental and cultural factors. He considered it advisable to "suspend judgment and keep our eyes open from year to year for fresh and more conclusive evidence that will probably be discovered".[17] This was contrary to the previous consensus of all scientists. As leftism increased in the population, increasingly leftist scientists would increasingly ignore more and more evidence on the question, until they eventually tabooed the topic completely.

File:Raymond Cattell.jpg
Raymond Cattell, known for psychometric research into intrapersonal psychological structure, advocated that supposedly inferior races should be euthanized.

In the 1930s, many scientists were still not leftists. The English psychologist Raymond Cattell wrote three tracts, Psychology and Social Progress (1933), The Fight for Our National Intelligence (1937) and Psychology and the Religious Quest (1938). The second was published by the Eugenics Society, of which he had been a research fellow; it predicted the disastrous consequences of not stopping the decline in the average intelligence in Britain by one point per decade. In 1933, Cattell wrote that, of all the European races, the "Nordic race was the most evolved in intelligence and stability of temperament". He argued for "no mixture of bloods between racial groups" because "the resulting re-shuffling of impulses and psychic units throws together in each individual a number of forces which may be incompatible". He rationalised the "hatred and abhorrence ... for the Jewish practice of living in other nations instead of forming an independent self-sustained group of their own", referring to them as "intruders" with a "crafty spirit of calculation". He recommended a rigid division of races, referring to those suggesting that individuals be judged on their merits, irrespective of racial background, as "race-slumpers". He wrote that in the past, "the backward branches of the tree of mankind" had been lopped off as "the American Indians, the Black Australians, the Mauris and the negroes had been driven by bloodshed from their lands", unaware of "the biological rationality of that destiny". He advocated what he saw as a more enlightened solution: by birth control, by sterilization, and by "life in adapted reserves and asylums", where the "races which have served their turn [should] be brought to euthanasia." He considered blacks to be naturally inferior, on account of their supposedly "small skull capacity". In 1937, he praised the Third Reich for their eugenic laws and for "being the first to adopt sterilization together with a policy of racial improvement". In 1938, after newspapers had reported on the segregation of Jews into ghettos and concentration camps, he commented that the rise of Germany "should be welcomed by the religious man as reassuring evidence that in spite of modern wealth and ease, we shall not be allowed ... to adopt foolish social practices in fatal detachment from the stream of evolution". In late 1937, Cattell moved to the US on the invitation of the psychologist Edward Thorndike of Columbia University, also involved in eugenics. He spent the rest of his life there as a research psychologist, devoting himself after retirement to devising and publicising a refined version of his ideology from the 1930s that he called beyondism.[18][19][20]

File:FranzBoas.jpg

In 1935, Otto Klineberg wrote two books, Negro Intelligence and Selective Migration and Race Differences, dismissing claims that African Americans in the northern states were more intelligent than those in the south. He argued that there was no scientific proof of racial differences in intelligence and that this should not therefore be used as a justification for policies in education or employment.[21][22]

The hereditarian standard began to weaken in the 1940s in reaction not to evidence, but to excessive build up of leftists in the sciences and the astroturfing of their fallacious, evidence free environmental arguments.[23] In the 1940s many psychologists, particularly social psychologists, began to argue that environmental and cultural factors, as well as discrimination and prejudice, provided a more probable explanation of disparities in intelligence. According to Franz Samelson, this change in attitude had become widespread by then,[24] with very few studies in race differences in intelligence, a change brought out by an increase in the number of psychologists not from a "lily-white ... Anglo-Saxon" background but from Jewish backgrounds. The 1950 race statement of UNESCO, prepared in consultation with scientists including Klineberg, created a further taboo against conducting scientific research on issues related to race.[25] Ironically, the best evidence suggests that this shift happened due to dysgenics, specifically mutational pressure, which increases leftism by a significant amount.

1960–1980

By the 1960s, leftism had risen to be very common, even in majority, in academia. Protesting this, in 1965 William Shockley, Nobel laureate in physics and professor at Stanford University, made a public statement at the Nobel conference on "Genetics and the Future of Man" about the problems of "genetic deterioration" in humans caused by "evolution in reverse". He claimed social support systems designed to help the disadvantaged had a regressive effect. Shockley subsequently claimed the most competent American population group were the descendants of original European settlers, because of the extreme selective pressures imposed by the harsh conditions of early colonialism.[26] Speaking of the "genetic enslavement" of African Americans, owing to an abnormally high birth rate, Shockley discouraged improved education as a remedy, suggesting instead sterilization and birth control. In the following ten years he continued to argue in favor of this position, claiming it was not based on prejudice but "on sound statistics". Shockley's outspoken public statements and lobbying brought him into contact with those running the Pioneer Fund who subsequently, through the intermediary Carleton Putnam, provided financial support for his extensive lobbying activities in this area, reported widely in the press. With the psychologist and segregationist R. Travis Osborne as adviser, he formed the Foundation for Research and Education on Eugenics and Dysgenics (FREED).

File:Wickliffe Draper.jpg
Wickliffe Draper, founder of the Pioneer Fund

All of these ultimately held academic positions in the Southern states, notably Henry E. Garrett (head of psychology at Columbia University until 1955), Wesley Critz George, Frank C.J. McGurk, R. Travis Osborne and Audrey Shuey, who in 1958 wrote The Testing of Negro Intelligence, demonstrating "the presence of native differences between Negroes and whites as determined by intelligence tests".[27][28][29] In 1959 Garrett helped to found the International Association for the Advancement of Ethnology and Eugenics, an organisation promoting segregation. Early hereditarians did not understand that leftism itself was caused by dysgenics. But they did understand that it was false and related to bad genes in some ways. In 1961 he blamed the shift away from hereditarianism, which he described as the "scientific hoax of the century", on the school of thought –the "Boas cult" – promoted by his former colleagues at Columbia, notably Franz Boas and Otto Klineberg, and more generally "Jewish organizations", most of whom "belligerently support the egalitarian dogma which they accept as having been 'scientifically' proved". He also pointed to Marxist origins in this shift, writing in a pamphlet, Desegregation: Fact and hokum, that: "It is certain that the Communists have aided in the acceptance and spread of egalitarianism although the extent and method of their help is difficult to assess. Egalitarianism is good Marxist doctrine, not likely to change with gyrations in the Kremlin line." In 1951 Garrett had even gone as far as reporting Klineberg to the FBI for advocating "many Communistic theories", including the idea that "there are no differences in the races of mankind".[30][31][32][33][34][35]

One of Shockley's lobbying campaigns involved the educational psychologist, Arthur Jensen, of the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley). Although earlier in his career Jensen had favored environmental rather than genetic factors as the explanation of race differences in intelligence, he had changed his mind during 1966-1967 when he was at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford. Here Jensen met Shockley and through him received support for his research from the Pioneer Fund.[27][36] Although Shockley and Jensen's names were later to become linked in the media,[27][37] Jensen does not mention Shockley as an important influence on his thought in his subsequent writings;[38][39] rather he describes as decisive his work with Hans Eysenck. He also mentions his interest in the behaviorist theories of Clark L. Hull which he says he abandoned largely because he found them to be incompatible with experimental findings during his years at Berkeley.[40]

File:Arthur Jensen Vanderbilt 2002.jpg
Arthur Jensen, professor of educational psychology at UC Berkeley, wrote the 1969 article on intelligence that became one of the most controversial articles in the history of psychology.

In a 1968 article published in Disadvantaged Child, Jensen questioned the effectiveness of child development and antipoverty programs, writing: "As a social policy, avoidance of the issue could be harmful to everyone in the long run, especially to future generations of Negroes, who could suffer the most from well-meaning but misguided and ineffective attempts to improve their lot."[41] In 1969 Jensen wrote a long article in the Harvard Educational Review, "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?"[42]

In his article, 123 pages long, Jensen insisted on the accuracy and lack of bias in intelligence tests, stating that the absolute quantity g that they measured, the general intelligence factor, first introduced by the English psychologist Charles Spearman in 1904, "stood like a Rock of Gibraltar in psychometrics". He stressed the importance of biological considerations in intelligence, commenting that "the belief in the almost infinite plasticity of intellect, the ostrich-like denial of biological factors in individual differences, and the slighting of the role of genetics in the study of intelligence can only hinder investigation and understanding of the conditions, processes, and limits through which the social environment influences human behavior." He argued at length that, contrary to environmentalist orthodoxy, intelligence was partly dependent on the same genetic factors that influence other physical attributes. More controversially, he briefly speculated that the difference in performance at school between blacks and whites might have a partly genetic explanation, commenting that there were "various lines of evidence, no one of which is definitive alone, but which, viewed all together, make it a not unreasonable hypothesis that genetic factors are strongly implicated in the average Negro-white intelligence difference. The preponderance of the evidence is, in my opinion, less consistent with a strictly environmental hypothesis than with a genetic hypothesis, which, of course, does not exclude the influence of environment or its interaction with genetic factors."[43][44] He advocated the allocation of educational resources according to merit and insisted on the close correlation between intelligence and occupational status, arguing that "in a society that values and rewards individual talent and merit, genetic factors inevitably take on considerable importance." Concerned that the average IQ in the US was inadequate to answer the increasing needs of an industrialised society, he predicted that people with lower IQs would become unemployable while at the same time there would be an insufficient number with higher IQs to fill professional posts. He felt that eugenic reform would prevent this more effectively than compensatory education, surmising that "the technique for raising intelligence per se in the sense of g, probably lie more in the province of biological science than in psychology or education". He pointed out that intelligence and family size were inversely correlated, particularly amongst the black population, so that the current trend in average national intelligence was dysgenic rather than eugenic. As he wrote, "Is there a danger that current welfare policies, unaided by eugenic foresight, could lead to the genetic enslavement of a substantial segment of our population? The fuller consequences of our failure seriously to study these questions may well be judged by future generations as our society's greatest injustice to Negro Americans." He concluded by emphasizing the importance of child-centered education. Although a tradition had developed for the exclusive use of cognitive learning in schools, Jensen argued that it was not suited to "these children's genetic and cultural heritage": although capable of associative learning and memorization ("Level I" ability), they had difficulties with abstract conceptual reasoning ("Level II" ability). He felt that in these circumstances the success of education depended on exploiting "the actual potential learning that is latent in these children's patterns of abilities". He suggested that, in order to ensure equality of opportunity, "schools and society must provide a range and diversity of educational methods, programs and goals, and of occupational opportunities, just as wide as the range of human abilities."[45][46][47]

File:Hans.Eysenck.jpg
Hans Eysenck, professor of psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry and Jensen's mentor, whose work has been largely discredited.[48][49][50]

Jensen's article was widely criticized despite its lack of empirical faults. Criticisms were ideological in nature, and after a short time, the conclusions of the article were buried and ignored. Throughout his life, Jensen endured harassment for the article from students and academics.

1980–present

In 2002, Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen, published IQ and the Wealth of Nations.[51] Vanhanen claimed "Whereas the average IQ of Finns is 97, in Africa it is between 60 and 70. Differences in intelligence are the most significant factor in explaining poverty." A complaint by Finland's "Ombudsman for Minorities", Mikko Puumalainen, resulted in Vanhanen being considered to be investigated for incitement of "racial hatred" by the Finnish National Bureau of Investigations.[52] In 2004, the police stated they found no reason to suspect he incited racial hatred and decided not to launch an investigation.[53] Several negative reviews of the book have been published in the scholarly literature. Susan Barnett and Wendy M. Williams wrote that "we see an edifice built on layer upon layer of arbitrary assumptions and selective data manipulation. The data on which the entire book is based are of questionable validity and are used in ways that cannot be justified." They also wrote that cross country comparisons are "virtually meaningless."[54] Richardson (2004) argued, citing the Flynn effect as the best evidence, that Lynn has the causal connection backwards and suggested that "the average IQ of a population is simply an index of the size of its middle class, both of which are results of industrial development". The review concludes that "This is not so much science, then, as a social crusade."[55] A review by Michael Palairet criticized the book's methodology, particularly the imprecise estimates of GDP and the fact that IQ data were only available for 81 of the 185 countries studied.[56] Kamin (2006) has also criticized Lynn and Vanhanen's work on methodological grounds.[57] On July 27, 2020, the European Human Behavior and Evolution Association issued a formal statement opposing the utilization of Lynn's national IQ dataset, citing various methodological concerns. They concluded "Any conclusions drawn from analyses which use these data are therefore unsound, and no reliable evolutionary work should be using these data."[58]

In 2005 the journal Psychology, Public Policy and Law of the American Psychological Association (APA) published a review article by Rushton and Jensen, "Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability".[59] The article was followed by a series of responses, some in support, some critical.[60][61][62] Psychologist Richard Nisbett later included an amplified version of his critique as part of the book Intelligence and How to Get It: Why Schools and Cultures Count (2009).[63] Rushton and Jensen in 2010 made a point-for-point reply to this and again summarized the hereditarian position in "Race and IQ: A theory-based review of the research in Richard Nisbett's Intelligence and How to Get It".[64]

In 2006, a systematic analysis by James Flynn and William Dickens showed the gap between black and white Americans to have closed dramatically during the period between 1972 and 2002, suggesting that, in their words, the "constancy of the Black-White IQ gap is a myth."[65] They argued that their results refute the possibility of a genetic origin, concluding that "the environment has been responsible" for observed differences.[65] A subsequent review led by Richard Nisbett and co-authored by Flynn, published in 2012, reached a similar conclusion, stating that the weight of evidence presented in all prior research literature shows that group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin.[66]

On the other hand, a 2007 meta-analysis by Rindermann found many of the same groupings and correlations found by Lynn and Vanhanen, with the lowest scores in sub-Saharan Africa, and a correlation of .60 between cognitive skill and GDP per capita. By measuring the relationship between educational data and social well-being over time, this study also performed a causal analysis, finding that nations investing in education leads to increased well-being later on.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. Template:Harvtxt considers Rindermann's analysis to be much more reliable than Lynn and Vanhanen's. However, a 2017 systematic review notes that other researchers have dismissed Rindermann's findings on the basis that "the meaning of variables shifts when you aggregate to different levels; a conceptual, methodological point that is well-established in the field of multi-level modelling."[67] In particular, James Flynn writes that "Rindermann's results suggest that different factors lie behind the emergence of g in international comparisons and the emergence of g when we compare the differential performance of individuals. This renders g(l) and g(ID) so unlike that they have little significance in common."[68] Similarly, Martin Brunner and Romain Martin argue that Rindermann's identification of "a common factor underlying measures of intelligence and student achievement on the cross-national level" is methodologically flawed, stating that given "the level of analysis applied . . . this factor cannot be interpreted as general cognitive ability (g). Rather it is an indicator of a nation's prosperity."[69]

In 2007, James D. Watson, Nobel laureate in biology, gave a controversial interview to the Sunday Times Magazine during a book tour in the United Kingdom. Watson stated he was "inherently gloomy about the prospect of Africa" because "all our social policies are based on the fact that their intelligence is the same as ours – whereas all the testing says not really." He also wrote that "there is no firm reason to anticipate that the intellectual capacities of peoples geographically separated in their evolution should prove to have evolved identically. Our wanting to reserve equal powers of reason as some universal heritage of humanity will not be enough to make it so." This resulted in the cancellation of a Royal Society lecture, along with other public engagements, and his suspension from his administrative duties at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. He subsequently cancelled the tour and resigned from his position at CSHL, where he had served as either director, president or chancellor since 1968. However, Watson was later appointed chancellor emeritus of CSHL, and, as of 2009, he continued to advise and guide project work at the laboratory.[70]

A 2009 debate in the journal Nature on the question "Should scientists study race and IQ?" involved position papers by Stephen Ceci and Wendy M. Williams arguing "yes" and Steven Rose arguing "no". It is notable that both sides agreed that, as Ceci and Williams put it, "There is an emerging consensus about racial and gender equality in genetic determinants of intelligence; most researchers, including ourselves, agree that genes do not explain between-group differences."[71] Subsequent editorials in Nature have affirmed this view, for example the 2017 statement by the editorial board that "the (genuine but closing) gap between the average IQ scores of groups of black and white people in the United States has been falsely attributed to genetic differences between the races."[72]

In a meta-analysis of studies of IQ estimates in Sub-Saharan Africa, Template:Harvtxt concluded that Lynn and Vanhanen had relied on unsystematic methodology by failing to publish their criteria for including or excluding studies. They found that Lynn and Vanhanen's exclusion of studies had depressed their IQ estimate for sub-Saharan Africa, and that including studies excluded in IQ and Global Inequality resulted in average IQ of 82 for sub-Saharan Africa, lower than the average in Western countries, but higher than Lynn and Vanhanen's estimate of 67. Wicherts at al. conclude that this difference is likely due to sub-Saharan Africa having limited access to modern advances in education, nutrition and health care.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. A 2010 systematic review by the same research team, along with Jerry S. Carlson, found that compared to American norms, the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans was about 80. The same review concluded that the Flynn effect had not yet taken hold in sub-Saharan Africa.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found.

Wicherts, Borsboom, and Dolan (2010) argued that studies reporting support for evolutionary theories of intelligence based on national IQ data suffer from multiple fatal methodological flaws. For example, they state that such studies "... assume that the Flynn Effect is either nonexistent or invariant with respect to different regions of the world, that there have been no migrations and climatic changes over the course of evolution, and that there have been no trends over the last century in indicators of reproductive strategies (e.g., declines in fertility and infant mortality)." They also showed that a strong degree of confounding exists between national IQs and current national development status.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found. Similarly, Pesta & Poznanski (2014) showed that the average temperature of a given US state is strongly associated with that state's average IQ and other well-being variables, despite the fact that evolution has not had enough time to operate on non-Native American residents of the United States. They also noted that this association persisted even after controlling for race, and concluded that "Evolution is therefore not necessary for temperature and IQ/well-being to co-vary meaningfully across geographic space."Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list' not found.

In 2016, Template:Harvtxt attempted to replicate the findings of Template:Harvtxt by surveying 71 self-identified psychology experts on the causes of international differences in cognitive test scores; only 20% of those invited participated. They found that the experts surveyed ranked education as the most important factor of these differences, with genetics in second place (accounting on average for 15% of the gap, with high variability in estimates among experts) and health, wealth, geography, climate, and politics as the next most important factors. About 90% of experts in the survey believed there was a genetic component to international IQ gaps. The authors emphasized, however, that their study serves as an "opinion instrument" rather than "an indicator of truth." Notably, the study relied on "self-selection of experts," which the authors acknowledge as a limitation, and focused on self-identified experts in psychology rather than genetics.

In 2018, in response to a resurgence of public controversy over race and intelligence, the geneticist and neuroscientist Kevin Mitchell made a statement in The Guardian that described the idea of genetic IQ differences between races as "inherently and deeply implausible" because it goes against basic principles of population genetics. There he argued, "To end up with systematic genetic differences in intelligence between large, ancient populations, the selective forces driving those differences would need to have been enormous. What's more, those forces would have to have acted across entire continents, with wildly different environments, and have been persistent over tens of thousands of years of tremendous cultural change." Mitchell concluded that, "While genetic variation may help to explain why one person is more intelligent than another, there are unlikely to be stable and systematic genetic differences that make one population more intelligent than the next."[73]

See also

Notes

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  1. ↑ Walker, Clarence E. (2001). We Can't Go Home Again: An Argument About Afrocentrism. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 0-19-535730-2.
  2. ↑ Morton, Samuel George (1839), Crania Americana; or, A Comparative View of the Skulls of Various Aboriginal Nations of North and South America: To which is Prefixed An Essay on the Varieties of the Human Species, Philadelphia: J. Dobson
  3. ↑ Bean, Robert Bennett (1906), "Some racial peculiarities of the Negro brain" (PDF), American Journal of Anatomy, 5 (4): 353–432, doi:10.1002/aja.1000050402, hdl:2027.42/49594
  4. ↑ Mall, F. P. (1909), "On several anatomical characters of the human brain, said to vary according to race and sex, with especial reference to the weight of the frontal lobe", American Journal of Anatomy, 9: 1–32, doi:10.1002/aja.1000090102
  5. ↑ Fish 2002, p. 159, Chapter 6, "Science and the idea of race", by Audrey Smedley
  6. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  7. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  8. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Template:Cite book
  10. ↑ {{#if:Hall |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Hall |Hall{{#if: Joshua M. |, Joshua M. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Hall |Hall{{#if: Joshua M. |, Joshua M. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Hall |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:November 2014 | (November 2014) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Hall | . }}{{#if:HallNovember 2014 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276310425 |Questions of Race in J. S. Mill's Contributions to Logic |Questions of Race in J. S. Mill's Contributions to Logic }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Philosophia Africana |. Philosophia Africana }}{{#if:16 | 16 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:73–94 |: 73–94 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.5840/philafricana20141626 |. doi:10.5840/philafricana20141626 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  11. ↑ Template:Cite book
  12. ↑ Template:Cite news
  13. ↑ Template:Cite news
  14. ↑ Template:Cite book
  15. ↑ Template:Citation
  16. ↑ Template:Citation Reprint of 1929 textbook.
  17. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  18. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  19. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  20. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  21. ↑ Template:Citation
  22. ↑ Template:Citation
  23. ↑ A history of Modern Psychology in Context, Wade E. Pickren and Alexandra Rutherford, Wiley, 2010, page 163
  24. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  25. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  26. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Template:Harvnb
  28. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  29. ↑ Template:Harvnb The official history of the Pioneer Fund written by a board member.
  30. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  31. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  32. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  33. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  34. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  35. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  36. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  37. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  38. ↑ Roger Pearson's 1992 book "Shockley on Race and Eugenics" contains a foreword by Jensen, giving a lengthy assessment of Shockley
  39. ↑ In Template:Harvnb, Jensen is reported as saying that Shockley's main contribution was to distract opponents and that "I have always been amazed that someone as bright as he could have contributed so little over so long a span of time".
  40. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:1998 | (1998) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:1998 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Jensen on "Jensenism"] |Jensen on "Jensenism" }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Intelligence |. Intelligence }}{{#if:26 | 26 }}{{#if:3 | (3) }}{{#if:181–208 |: 181–208 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)80002-6 |. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)80002-6 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  41. ↑ See:
  42. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  43. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  44. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  45. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  46. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  47. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  48. ↑ Template:Cite magazine
  49. ↑ Template:Cite web
  50. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2019-12-16 | (2019-12-16) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2019-12-16 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} King's College London's enquiry into Hans J Eysenck's 'Unsafe' publications must be properly completed] |King's College London's enquiry into Hans J Eysenck's 'Unsafe' publications must be properly completed }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en-US | (in en-US) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Journal of Health Psychology |. Journal of Health Psychology }}{{#if:25 | 25 }}{{#if:1 | (1) }}{{#if:3–6 |: 3–6 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1177/1359105319887791 |. doi:10.1177/1359105319887791 }}{{#if:1359-1053 |. ISSN 1359-1053 }}{{#if:31841048 |. PMID 31841048 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  51. ↑ Lynn, R. and Vanhanen, T. (2002). IQ and the wealth of nations. Westport, CT: Praeger. Template:ISBN
  52. ↑ Comments in interview could bring charges of inciting racism against PM Vanhanen's father Helsingin Sanomat, August 12, 2004
  53. ↑ Template:Cite web
  54. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:August 2004 | (August 2004) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:August 2004 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://psycinfo.apa.org/psyccritiques/display/?uid=2004-17780-001 |National Intelligence and the Emperor's New Clothes |National Intelligence and the Emperor's New Clothes }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books |. Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books }}{{#if:49 | 49 }}{{#if:4 | (4) }}{{#if:389–396 |: 389–396 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/004367 |. doi:10.1037/004367 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  55. ↑ {{#if:Richardson |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Richardson |Richardson{{#if: K. |, K. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Richardson |Richardson{{#if: K. |, K. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Richardson |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) |{{#if:2004 |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} 2004) | (2004) }} }} }}{{#if:Richardson | . }}{{#if:Richardson2004 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:https://www.nature.com/articles/6800418.pdf |Book review, IQ and the Wealth of Nations |Book review, IQ and the Wealth of Nations }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Heredity |. Heredity }}{{#if:92 | 92 }}{{#if:4 | (4) }}{{#if:359–360 |: 359–360 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800418 |. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800418 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  56. ↑ {{#if:Palairet |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Palairet |Palairet{{#if: M. R. |, M. R. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Palairet |Palairet{{#if: M. R. |, M. R. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Palairet |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2004 | (2004) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Palairet | . }}{{#if:Palairet2004 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Book review, IQ and the Wealth of Nations] |Book review, IQ and the Wealth of Nations }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Heredity |. Heredity }}{{#if:92 | 92 }}{{#if:4 | (4) }}{{#if:361–362 |: 361–362 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800427 |. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800427 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  57. ↑ {{#if:Kamin |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Kamin |Kamin{{#if: Leon J. |, Leon J. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Kamin |Kamin{{#if: Leon J. |, Leon J. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Kamin |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2006-03-01 | (2006-03-01) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Kamin | . }}{{#if:Kamin2006-03-01 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} African IQ and Mental Retardation] |African IQ and Mental Retardation }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:South African Journal of Psychology |. South African Journal of Psychology }}{{#if:36 | 36 }}{{#if:1 | (1) }}{{#if:1–9 |: 1–9 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1177/008124630603600101 |. doi:10.1177/008124630603600101 }}{{#if:0081-2463 |. ISSN 0081-2463 }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  58. ↑ Template:Cite web
  59. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  60. ↑ {{#if:Gottfredson |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Gottfredson |Gottfredson{{#if: Linda S. |, Linda S. }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Gottfredson |Gottfredson{{#if: Linda S. |, Linda S. }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Gottfredson |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2005 | (2005) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Gottfredson | . }}{{#if:Gottfredson2005 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true?] |What if the hereditarian hypothesis is true? }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Psychology, Public Policy, and Law |. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law }}{{#if:11 | 11 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:311–319 |: 311–319 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.311 |. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.311 }}{{#if:1076-8971 |. ISSN 1076-8971 }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  61. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2005 | (2005) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2005 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} The cultural malleability of intelligence and its impact on the racial/ethnic hierarchy.] |The cultural malleability of intelligence and its impact on the racial/ethnic hierarchy. }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if:en | (in en) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Psychology, Public Policy, and Law |. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law }}{{#if:11 | 11 }}{{#if:2 | (2) }}{{#if:320–327 |: 320–327 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.320 |. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.320 }}{{#if:1076-8971 |. ISSN 1076-8971 }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  62. ↑ Template:Cite book
  63. ↑ Template:Cite book
  64. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2010 | (2010) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2010 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Race and IQ: A theory-based review of the research in Richard Nisbett's Intelligence and How to Get It] |Race and IQ: A theory-based review of the research in Richard Nisbett's Intelligence and How to Get It }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:The Open Psychology Journal |. The Open Psychology Journal }}{{#if:3 | 3 }}{{#if:1 | (1) }}{{#if:9–35 |: 9–35 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.2174/1874350101003010009 |. doi:10.2174/1874350101003010009 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2006 | (2006) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2006 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/dickens2006a.pdf |Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence from Standardization Samples |Black Americans Reduce the Racial IQ Gap: Evidence from Standardization Samples }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Psychological Science |. Psychological Science }}{{#if:17 | 17 }}{{#if:10 | (10) }}{{#if:913–920 |: 913–920 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x |. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01802.x }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if:17100793 |. PMID 17100793 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  66. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:2012 | (2012) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:2012 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Nisbett%20(2012)%20Group.pdf |Group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin |Group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:American Psychologist |. American Psychologist }}{{#if:67 | 67 }}{{#if: | ({{{issue}}}) }}{{#if:503–504 |: 503–504 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1037/a0029772 |. doi:10.1037/a0029772 }}{{#if:0003-066X |. ISSN 0003-066X }}{{#if:22963427 |. PMID 22963427 }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  67. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:30 Jan 2017 | (30 Jan 2017) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:30 Jan 2017 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Lessons Learned from PISA: A Systematic Review of Peer-Reviewed Articles on the Programme for International Student Assessment] |Lessons Learned from PISA: A Systematic Review of Peer-Reviewed Articles on the Programme for International Student Assessment }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research |. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research }}{{#if:62 | 62 }}{{#if:3 | (3) }}{{#if:333–353 |: 333–353 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1080/00313831.2016.1258726 |. doi:10.1080/00313831.2016.1258726 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  68. ↑ {{#if:Flynn |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Flynn |Flynn{{#if: James |, James }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Flynn |Flynn{{#if: James |, James }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Flynn |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:August 2007 | (August 2007) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Flynn | . }}{{#if:FlynnAugust 2007 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://cel.webofknowledge.com/InboundService.do?customersID=atyponcel&smartRedirect=yes&mode=FullRecord&IsProductCode=Yes&product=CEL&Init=Yes&Func=Frame&action=retrieve&SrcApp=literatum&SrcAuth=atyponcel&SID=8CQpB1m5YM1221P52bl&UT=WOS%3A000250134400034 |What lies behind g(I) and g(ID) |What lies behind g(I) and g(ID) }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:European Journal of Personality |. European Journal of Personality }}{{#if:21 | 21 }}{{#if:5 | (5) }}{{#if:722–724 |: 722–724 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if: |. doi:{{{doi}}} }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  69. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:August 2007 | (August 2007) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:August 2007 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://cel.webofknowledge.com/InboundService.do?customersID=atyponcel&smartRedirect=yes&mode=FullRecord&IsProductCode=Yes&product=CEL&Init=Yes&Func=Frame&action=retrieve&SrcApp=literatum&SrcAuth=atyponcel&SID=8BIExvR95nOzxbIhpTh&UT=WOS%3A000250134400030 |Not Every g is g |Not Every g is g }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:European Journal of Personality |. European Journal of Personality }}{{#if:21 | 21 }}{{#if:5 | (5) }}{{#if:714–716 |: 714–716 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if: |. doi:{{{doi}}} }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if: | “{{{quote}}}” }}
  70. ↑ See: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: Watson |Watson{{#if: James |, James }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if:Watson |Watson{{#if: James |, James }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if:Watson |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:September–October 2007 | (September–October 2007) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if:Watson | . }}{{#if:WatsonSeptember–October 2007 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if:http://www.02138mag.com/magazine/article/1488-3.html |Blinded by Science. An exclusive excerpt from Watson's new memoir, Avoid Boring People: Lessons from a Life in Science. |Blinded by Science. An exclusive excerpt from Watson's new memoir, Avoid Boring People: Lessons from a Life in Science. }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:02138 Magazine |. 02138 Magazine }}{{#if: | {{{volume}}} }}{{#if: | ({{{issue}}}) }}{{#if: |: {{{pages}}} }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if: |. doi:{{{doi}}} }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if: |. PMID {{{pmid}}} }}{{#if: |. Bibcode: {{{bibcode}}} }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if:As we find the human genes whose malfunctioning gives rise to such devastating developmental failures, we may well discover that sequence differences within many of them also lead to much of the observable variation in human IQs. A priori, there is no firm reason to anticipate that the intellectual capacities of peoples geographically separated in their evolution should prove to have evolved identically. Our desire to reserve equal powers of reason as some universal heritage of humanity will not be enough to make it so. | “As we find the human genes whose malfunctioning gives rise to such devastating developmental failures, we may well discover that sequence differences within many of them also lead to much of the observable variation in human IQs. A priori, there is no firm reason to anticipate that the intellectual capacities of peoples geographically separated in their evolution should prove to have evolved identically. Our desire to reserve equal powers of reason as some universal heritage of humanity will not be enough to make it so.” }}
  71. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:1 February 2009 | (1 February 2009) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:1 February 2009 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Should scientists study race and IQ? YES: The scientific truth must be pursued] |Should scientists study race and IQ? YES: The scientific truth must be pursued }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Nature |. Nature }}{{#if:457 | 457 }}{{#if:7231 | (7231) }}{{#if:788–789 |: 788–789 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1038/457788a |. doi:10.1038/457788a }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if:19212385 |. PMID 19212385 }}{{#if:2009Natur.457..788C |. Bibcode: 2009Natur.457..788C }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if:There is an emerging consensus about racial and gender equality in genetic determinants of intelligence; most researchers, including ourselves, agree that genes do not explain between-group differences. | “There is an emerging consensus about racial and gender equality in genetic determinants of intelligence; most researchers, including ourselves, agree that genes do not explain between-group differences.” }}
  72. ↑ {{#if: |{{#if: |[[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }}]] |{{#if: |{{{last}}}{{#if: |, {{{first}}} }} |{{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: |{{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if:22 May 2017 | (22 May 2017) |{{#if: |{{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{#if: | . }}{{#if:22 May 2017 | }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if: |“|"}} }}{{#if: |[{{{url}}} Intelligence research should not be held back by its past] |Intelligence research should not be held back by its past }}{{#ifeq: | no | | {{#if:|”|"}} }}{{#if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{#if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{#if:Nature |. Nature }}{{#if:545 | 545 }}{{#if:7655 | (7655) }}{{#if:385–386 |: 385–386 }}{{#if: |. {{#if: |{{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{#if:10.1038/nature.2017.22021 |. doi:10.1038/nature.2017.22021 }}{{#if: |. ISSN {{{issn}}} }}{{#if:28541341 |. PMID 28541341 }}{{#if:2017Natur.545R.385. |. Bibcode: 2017Natur.545R.385. }}{{#if: |. OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{#if: |. {{{id}}} }}{{#if: |. Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: | Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}} }}{{#if: |. [{{{laysummary}}} Lay summary]{{#if: | – {{{laysource}}}}} }}{{#if: | ([[{{{laydate}}}]]) }}.{{#if:Historical measurements of skull volume and brain weight were done to advance claims of the racial superiority of white people. More recently, the (genuine but closing) gap between the average IQ scores of groups of black and white people in the United States has been falsely attributed to genetic differences between the races. | “Historical measurements of skull volume and brain weight were done to advance claims of the racial superiority of white people. More recently, the (genuine but closing) gap between the average IQ scores of groups of black and white people in the United States has been falsely attributed to genetic differences between the races.” }}
  73. ↑ Template:Cite news

References

Further reading

External links

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